Figure 2.

Illustration of molecular pathways involving mitochondrial dysfunction, reactive oxygen and nitrogen species, and their roles in the progression of neurodegeneration in AD. Mitochondrial dysfunction leads to enhanced generation of reactive oxygen species, primarily superoxide, which then may be converted to other ROS or combined with nitric oxide ultimately causing nitro-oxidative stress. ROS and RNS may also damage mitochondrial DNA and restrict neurogenesis. Mitochondrial dysfunction also contributes to the induction of apoptotic pathways involving Bcl/BAX and JNK ultimately exacerbating neurodegeneration.