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. 2022 Jan 7;14(2):280. doi: 10.3390/cancers14020280

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© 2022 by the authors.

Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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Schematic representation of CAF heterogeneity. Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) represent a heterogeneous cellular population within the tumor microenvironment, originating from various sources (i.e., epithelial cells, endothelial cells, quiescent fibroblasts, …). CAFs shape the immune microenvironment in tumors toward a pro-tumorigenic and immunosuppressive milieu by affecting the recruitment and function of various innate and adaptive immune cells. Red arrows represent negative regulation/inhibition and blue arrows represent positive regulation/induction. Doted arrows represent a neutral effect. Created with BioRender.com (accessed on 4 January 2021).