Table 2.

Strategies to reduce the development of contrast-induced nephropathy. Preventive strategies against contrast-induced nephropathy (CIN) are presented, taking into account patient- and procedure-related risk factors and CIN pathophysiology. * Hydration is a patient-, procedure-, and pathophysiology-related preventive strategy against CIN.

Patient-related	Risk stratification of individual patients Evaluate and correct patient’s volume status Correct modifiable factors including cessation of nephrotoxic drugs
Procedure-related	Use low-osmolar or iso-osmolar contrast media Minimize the volume of contrast media - limit maximum contrast volume - consider the interval of contrast administration
Pathophysiology-related	Hydration * Pharmaceutical agents targeting pathogenic process including oxidative stress