Table 2.
Characteristics and major outcomes of studies examining whole lupin consumption and health outcomes.
| Reference | Study Type | Subjects (n) and Characteristics | Intervention | Control/Comparator | Energy Balance | Main Health Markers | Main Outcomes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Hall et al., 2005 [18] | RCT single blind cross-over Post-meal study |
n = 11 Healthy men (n = 9) and women (n = 2). Mean age 31.6 years, range 25–45 years |
Breakfast including lupin bread with 10% wheat flour replaced with Australian sweet lupin kernel flour | Breakfast including standard recipe white bread | 95kJ difference in lupin breakfast (1338 kJ) and control breakfast (1243 kJ) | 120 min SG, SI 180 min satiety response. Glycaemic index (GI), insulinaemic index (II) and satiety index (WB = 100). Energy intake from ad libitum buffet and during remainder of day. |
↓ GI (p = 0.022) ↑ II (p = 0.046) Trend to lower SG at 30 min. Peak satiety at 10 min WB and 25 min lupin. Below baseline at 160 min for WB. Lupin did not reach zero within 180 min. No difference in SI, satiety response, satiety index, energy intake at ad libitum buffet, or energy intake during remainder of day. |
| Lee et al., 2006 [16] | RCT cross-over Study 1: 4 treatments 1 week apart | Study 1: n = 16 healthy men (n = 8) and women (n = 8). Mean age 58.6 ± 7.2 years. Mean BMI 31.3 ± 4.5 kg/m2 |
Lupin bread 40% total flour (24% final weight of bread) in 4 treatments: WB-WB/WB-lupin/lupin-WB/lupin-lupin | White bread breakfast and lunch | Isocaloric at breakfast, ad libitum lunch |
Post breakfast 180 min satiety response. Total energy intake after ad libitum lunch. | ↑ Satiety at breakfast for satisfaction and prospective consumption (p < 0.001, p < 0.001). ↑ Satiety at 180 min for fullness (p < 0.001), satisfaction (p < 0.001) and prospective consumption (p < 0.001). ↓ Energy intake at lunch after lupin breakfast (−488; 95% CI: −798, −178 kJ). ↓ Intrameal energy intake when lupin consumed at lunch(−1028; 95% CI: −1338, −727 kJ). |
| Study 2: 2 treatments 1 week apart | Study 2: n = 17 healthy men (n = 11) and women (n = 6). Mean age 61.0 ± 5.6 years. Mean BMI 27.2 ± 4.3 kg/m2 |
Lupin bread 40% wheat flour replaced with lupin kernel flour | White bread | Isocaloric | Post breakfast 180 min plasma ghrelin, SG and SI | Altered ghrelin response (p = 0.04) ↓ 180 min plasma ghrelin (p = 0.009). Altered glucose response (p = 0.01) ↓ glucose AUC (p = 0.006) ↓ insulin AUC (p = 0.002). |
|
| Lee et al., 2009 * [33] | RCT parallel study 16 weeks 2 cohorts |
n = 74 Overweight and obese men (n = 26) and women (n = 48) Mean age 59.0 ± 7.4/56.8 ± 8.5 years. Mean BMI 30.6 ± 3.6/30.5 ± 3.4 kg/m2. |
Lupin bread 40% wheat flour replaced with lupin kernel flour (24% final weight bread) to replace usual carbohydrate-rich foods to ~15–20% usual energy intake. | White bread to replace normal bread intake and other carbo-hydrate-rich foods to ~15–20% usual energy intake | Isocaloric | 24-h SBP, DBP, pulse pressure and heart rate | ↓ 24-h SBP (p = 0.03) ↓ pulse pressure (p < 0.001). No difference in DBP, heart rate |
| Yang et al., 2010 * [32] | Paper refers to the Lee et al., 2009 study above | As above | As above | As above | As above | Plasma and urinary F2-isoprostanes, plasma 20-HETE, plasma and urinary nitrite and nitrate concentrates | No difference between groups |
| Hodgson et al., 2010 * [34] | Paper refers to the Lee et al., 2009 study above | As above | As above | As above | As above | BW every 2 weeks Body composition at 16 weeks TC, HDL, TG, LDL, SG, SI, HOMA-IR, plasma leptin and adiponectin, hs-CRP |
No difference between groups |
| Dove et al., 2011 [26] | RCT cross-over study of 3 test sessions, 7–14 days apart |
n = 24 type 2 diabetic men (n = 19) and women (n = 5). Mean age: 57 ± 6.6 years, range 44–66 years. Mean BMI: 30.9 ± 4.8 kg/m2 |
Beverage of 50 g glucose and 50 g lupin kernel flour | Beverage of 50% glucose (control), beverage of 50% glucose + soya protein and fibre isolates (comparator) | All beverages matched for total volume, carbohydrates and fat content lupin and soya matched for energy, protein and fibre | 240 min SG, SI and C-peptide response | ↓ 240 min SG response (p < 0.001), ↑ 240 min SI and C-peptide responses (p < 0.001) ↓ SI response compared with soya (p = 0.013). No difference in SG and C-peptide responses between lupin and soya |
| Keogh et al., 2011 [17] | RCT cross-over study |
n = 20 Healthy men (n = 10) and women (n = 10) Mean age 29.4 years Range: 20.1–44.8 years BMI 21.8 kg/m2 Range: 18.4–24.8 kg/m2 |
Lupin Bread breakfast | White bread breakfast (control), wholemeal and seeds bread breakfast (comparator) | Isocaloric breakfast, ad libitum standardised food and beverage tray 120 min post breakfast | 120 min satiety, PG and insulin response. Food and beverage weight, energy and macronutrient content 120 min post meal |
↑ Fullness response for lupin (p < 0.01) and WSB (p < 0.05) ↓ glucose AUC for lupin and WSB (p < 0.001) ↓ insulin AUC for lupin and WSB (p < 0.001) ↓ weight of food and beverage for lupin and WSB (p < 0.05) ↓ energy and total fat consumed after WSB (p < 0.05). No difference in energy and macronutrient intake post lupin meal. |
| Belski et al., 2011 [35] | RCT double blind parallel study 12 months 2 cohorts |
n = 131 n = 93 at 12 months Overweight and obese men (n = 68) and women (n = 63) Mean age 46.5 ± 10.1/46.7 ± 9.4. Mean BMI 31.3 ± 2.7/31.4 ± 2.8 kg/m2 |
Lupin kernel flour in bread, biscuits and pasta |
Standard food products without lupin (matched for colour, taste, texture) | Isocaloric | 4 and 12 month BW, body composition SBP, DBP, TC, HDL, LDL, TG, SG and SI, HOMA-IR and hs-CRP. | ↓ 24-h SBP and DBP at 12 months (p < 0.05) ↓ HDL (p < 0.05) ↓ SI and HOMA-IR at 4 and 12 months (p < 0.05) No difference in TC, LDL, TG, SG, hs-CRP BW or body composition at 4 or 12 months. No difference in maintenance of body weight loss during weight maintenance period (4–12 months) |
| Schopen et al., 2017 [15] | RCT single blind cross-over study 3 test visits 24 h apart |
n = 12 healthy men (n = 5) and women (n = 7). Mean age men 28 ± 3.67 years, women 26.86 ± 3.44 years. Mean BMI men 24.72 ± 2.3 kg/m2, women 20.92 ± 1.63 kg/m2 |
Sweet lupin flour in lunch meal of pasta and meat sauce (0.94 g lupin flour per kg of participant body weight) | Pasta and meat sauce lunch (reference meal), pasta and meat sauce lunch with whey protein (0.42 g per kg of participant BW) | Standardised breakfast, standardised test lunch. Lupin and whey meals matched for protein. Reference meal ~22% less kJ and ~50% less protein per kg of participant BW. All test meals similar in carbohydrate | 180 min SG 180 min SI Post test meal |
↓ SG AUC 0–60 min (p < 0.001) ↓ SG AUC 0–180 min (p = 0.030). No difference in SI |
| Fornasini et al., 2019 [25] | Controlled non-randomised single blind cross-over study (28 weeks) (One-group pretest-posttest design with double pretest) |
n = 5 type 2 diabetic men (n = 19) and women (n = 32) under conventional non-insulin medication. Mean age 64.1 ± 11.1 years. Mean BMI 30.3 ± 4.5 kg/m2 |
Whole Lupinus mutabilis 10 g dehydrated lupin snack. One dose per day 7 weeks (following initial 14-week medication only period). 2 doses per day next 7 weeks | Usual diet and medication | N/A | At 14 and 28 weeks BW, SBP, DBP, SG, SI, HbA1c, TC, LDL, HDL, Uric acid, CRP |
↑ SG and SI 0–28 weeks (p ≤ 0.05) ↑ HDL 0–28 weeks (p ≤ 0.05) ↓ BW (p = 0.015) and BMI (p = 0.009) 0–28 weeks ↓ SBP and DBP 0–28 and 14–28 weeks (p ≤0.05). No difference in HbA1c, TC, LDL, uric acid, CRP |
| Skalkos et al., 2020 [24] | Controlled non-randomised cross-over study 3 consecutive days, 1 treatment per day |
n = 20 Post-surgical hospital patient men (n = 12) and women (n = 8) with type 2 diabetes. Mean age 74.3 ± 11.7 years. Mean BMI 30.7 ± 4.5 kg/m2 |
4 × lupin biscuit containing 20% lupin flour (2 at morning tea and 2 at afternoon tea) on day 1 | 4 × wholemeal spelt biscuit day 2 4 × Arnott’s Marie biscuit (standard hospital option) day 3 |
Lupin and spelt biscuits isocaloric (1590 kJ/100 g) and lower than Marie biscuit (1850 kJ/100 g). Higher protein, fat and fibre in lupin and spelt, and lower carbohydrate and sugar than Marie biscuit |
CGM interstitial glucose pre- and 5 timepoints post-meal, bowel function (Bristol Stool Chart), hunger and fullness rating |
↓ glucose after dinner following lupin biscuit (p < 0.001) No difference in 0–90 min glucose at breakfast, morning tea, lunch, and afternoon tea for all 3 treatments. More patients felt fuller between afternoon tea-dinner following lupin biscuit (p = 0.018). No difference in bowel function |
| Ward et al., 2020 [23] | RCT double blind cross-over study 1-week run-in period, 2 × 8-week treatment with 8-week washout period |
n = 22 n = 17 completed, men (n = 14) and women (n = 8) with moderate-to-well controlled type 2 diabetes (HbA1c < 9%) Mean age 58 ± 6.6 years. Mean BMI 29.9 ± 3.5 kg/m2 |
Lupin-enriched foods replacing 20% of daily energy intake. Consumed every breakfast, lunch and at least 3 dinners per week. Average daily intake ~45 g lupin per day (12 g/d protein 10 g/d fibre) | Wheat-based control foods | Isocaloric | SG (at waking, 1 h post breakfast, immediately pre-lunch and 1 h post-lunch), SI, HOMA-IR, BW, BP, TC, LDL, TG, HDL, C-peptide |
No difference between treatments. Borderline significant decrease in TG with lupin |
* Part of one study; Abbreviations: Area under the curve (AUC); Body mass index (BMI); Blood pressure (BP); Body weight (BW); Continuous glucose monitor (CGM); Diastolic blood pressure (DBP); Glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c); High density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL); Homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR); High-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP); Low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL); Plasma glucose (PG); Systolic blood pressure (SBP); Serum glucose (SG); Serum insulin (SI); Triglycerides (TG); Total cholesterol (TC).