Table 2.
Review of bromelain immobilization methods.
| Immobilization Method | Carrier/Support Material |
Crosslinking Agent or Initiator | Outcomes | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Covalent immobilization |
APTES– modified mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSN) |
1-ethyl-(3-dimethylaminopropyl) carbodiimide/N-hydroxysuccinimide (EDC/NHS) | - Enhanced diffusion of MSN within the tumor extracellular matrix | [52] |
| Chitosan beads (Chitopearl BCW-3010) | / | - 22% immobilization yield - Higher resistance to the SO2, skin and seed tannins |
[77] | |
| Lyocell fibres | Epichlorohydrin + glutaraldehyde (GA), EDC, and APTES + GA | - 88.14% activity yield of immobilized bromelain at pH 7 - High stability of immobilized bromelain at pH range 6–8 - pH 7 is ideal for immobilization |
[79] | |
| Chitosan–cobalt–magnetite nanoparticle |
GA | - 77% immobilization binding - 85 ± 2% of the initial catalytic activity retained - 50% of the initial catalytic activity after the fifth use |
[80] | |
| Chitosan—clay (montmorillonites/bentonites or sepiolite) nanocompositefilm |
GA | - Increased immobilization yield, decreased catalytic activity of the immobilized bromelain | [81] | |
| Adsorption | Chitosan matrix | / | - Increased stability of bromelain concerning UV irradiation in comparison with free enzymes - Chitosan matrix acts as photoprotector |
[82] |
| Chitosan colloidal particles |
/ | - Destruction of a part of the helical structure - Decreased catalytic activity of bromelain |
[70] | |
| Magnetic carbon nanotubes |
/ | - Adsorption followed second-order kinetics - Bromelain (c = 100 μg/mL) alone and in combination with nanotubes efficiently inhibited the HT-29 colorectal cancerous cells |
[66] | |
| Ag nanoparticles |
/ | - Spontaneous interaction of AgNP with bromelain - Main forces are electrostatic and hydrophobic interactions - Adsorption follows pseudo-second-order kinetics |
[83] | |
| Magnetic nanoparticles with chitosan and reactive red 120 (Red 120-CS-MNP) |
/ | - Red 120-CS-MNP are suitable carrier - Adsorption isotherm fitted the Freundlich model well |
[84] | |
| Spores of the probiotic Bacillus |
/ | - Improved stability and activity of the bromelain upon exposure to a wide range of pH and high temperatures | [85] | |
| Bacterial nanocellulose |
/ | - Improved antimicrobial activity | [78] | |
| Entrapment | N-isopropylacrylamide (PNIPAAm) hydrogels | / | - New release system evolving hydrogels and bromelain for wound healing | [86] |
| Alginate—arabic gum hydrogels | / | - 19% of bromelain was incorporated, 227% swelling ratio of final hydrogel | [87] | |
| Encapsulation | Silica nanoparticles | DETA, TETA, TEPA, or PEHA | - Increased thermal stability | [72] |
| Chitosan—methyl cellulose hydrogel | GA | - Bromelain as a drug for digestion problem | [73] | |
| Freeze-dried chitosan nanoparticles |
Sodium tripolyphosphate | - 85.1 ± 1% encapsulation efficiency - Chitosan-bromelain-nanoparticles presented 4.9 U/mL of enzymatic activity (104.7% of free bromelain activity) - Freeze-dried chitosan-bromelain-nanoparticles improve bromelain and nanoparticle stability (maltose as lyoprotectant) |
[29] | |
| Katira gum nanoparticles |
/ | - Enhanced anti-inflammatory activity of bromelain against carrageenan | [76] | |
| Glutaraldehyde crosslinked chitosan microspheres |
/ | - 84.75% encapsulation efficiency | [74] | |
| Poly(lactide-co-glycolic) acid nanoparticles |
/ | - 48 ± 4.81% entrapment efficiency - Enhanced antitumor effect |
[75] | |
| Poly(lactide-co-glycolic) acid nanoparticles |
/ | - Oral administration of encapsulated nanoparticles reduced the tumor burden of Ehrlich ascites carcinoma in mice and increased their life-span (160.0 ± 5.8%) when compared with free bromelain (24 ± 3.2%) - Enhanced anti-carcinogenic potential upon oral administration |
[53] | |
| Eudragit L 100 nanoparticles | / | - 85.42 ± 5.34% entrapment efficiency - Lyophilized formulation ensured 2-year shelf-life at room temperature - Oral bromelain delivery in inflammatory conditions |
[88] | |
| Nanostructured lipid carrier (lecithin-steric acid-Span-80) emulsified with PVA solution | - ~77% entrapment efficiency - Diminished of paw edema, joint stiffness, mechanical allodynia, tissue damage - Alleviation of oxidative stress and immunological markers - Application in rheumatoid arthritis |
[89] |