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. 2022 Jan 16;14(1):62. doi: 10.3390/toxins14010062

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© 2022 by the authors.

Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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Retrograde trafficking of AB₅ toxins. (1) Holotoxins bind to target receptors on host cells via the B subunit; (2) binding of the B subunit triggers endocytosis of the toxin, forming early endosomes (3) for transport to the Golgi apparatus; (4) toxins migrate to the endoplasmic reticulum, where the B pentamer subunit is cleaved from the A subunit to allow for downstream cytotoxic effects in the cytosol. LT-I/LT-II: heat-labile enterotoxins; SubAB: subtilase toxin; Stx: Shiga toxin; Neu5Ac: N-acetylneuraminic acid; GM₁/GD1b: gangliosides; Neu5Gc: α-2-3-linked N-glycolylneuraminic acid; Gb₃:globotriaosylceramide; Gb₄: globoside. Created in BioRender.com.