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. 2021 Dec 23;58(1):16. doi: 10.3390/medicina58010016

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© 2021 by the authors.

Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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Possible Damaging Effects of Elevated Homocysteine (Hcy). There are at least 14 possible damaging effects of hyperhomocysteinemia (HHcy) to cells, tissues and organs. The possible damaging effects (1–13) are supported in reference [6], while the possible damaging effect of HHcy in number 14 is developed in the current review. Additionally, circulating monocytic SARS-CoV-2 spike protein remnants may also induce toxic cytokine/chemokine production in endothelial cells. CD14lo = cluster of differentiation 14 low; CD16+ = cluster of differentiation 16 positive; EC = endothelial cell; ecGCx = endothelial cell glycocalyx; eNOS = endothelial nitric oxide synthase; IFNγ = interferon gamma; LDL = low-density lipoprotein cholesterol; NO = nitric oxide; Ox = oxidative stress; RONS = reactive oxygen nitrogen species; NFkappaB = nuclear factor kappa B; RBCs = red blood cells; TNFα = tumor necrosis factor alpha.