Table 5.

Methods used to induce reno-differentiation of stem cells.

Methods	Fabrication	Mechanism and Benefits	Limitations
Conditioned medium from renal cell culture	Matrigel–Stem Cells–Matrigel [23,86]	-Form a tubular structure, which contain proximal tubules, distal tubules, and podocytes -Simple steps and low cost	-More off-target differentiated cells
Co-culture with renal cells	Induce differentiation into iUB and iNP, and then co-culture the two kinds of cells with stromal cells in the same low-adhesion 96-well plate, and induce with RA, CHIR99021, and FGF9 [147]	-Similar to normal kidney -Mutual promotion of cell differentiation and maturation	-Inefficient
Renal ECM	One gram of ECM was mixed with 100 mg of pepsin from porcine gastric mucosa and sterilized by gamma irradiation (1 Mrad). The supernatant solution was neutralized with 0.1 N NaOH and stored at −80 °C [27,28]	-Its compositional, structural, and molecular similarity to human k-ECM -Available in large amounts	-Potential loss of soluble growth factors and cytokines during the decellularization process -Heterogeneous composition of the ECM from batch to batch
Growth factors: HGF FGF9	Company name: PeproTech [18,149] R&D Systems [88] PeproTech [94]	-Precisely regulated to the post-intermediate mesoderm stage -Express Hoxd11 -Ensure differentiation into metanephric mesenchyme	-Immature renal unit -With no specific renal cell types

Abbreviations: ECM, extracellular matrix; HGF, rh-hepatocyte growth factor; FGF9, fibroblast growth factor 9; iUB, induced Ureteric Bud; iNP, induced Nephron Progenitor.