Figure 19.

(A) Schematic description of softwood structure from the cellular to the nano scale. Secondary cell walls (S1, S2, and S3) are nanofiber-reinforced composites of cellulose fibrils embedded in an organized matrix of amorphous cellulose, hemicelluloses, and lignin. Cellulose is organized in highly ordered elementary fibrils (~3 nm in diameter) that are grouped into bundles to form microfibrils with amorphous polysaccharides [266]; © Nature, 2020; (B–G) Images at different magnifications of lotus leaves (Nelumbo nucifera) with self-cleaning properties [267], © Elsevier, 2009.