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. 2022 Jan 24;14:4. doi: 10.1038/s41368-021-00156-y

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© The Author(s) 2022

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 3 — Immune-related biological processes during the consolidation period of DO. The number of osteogenic-related cytokines and signaling pathway-related molecules, which highly expressed in the distraction period, rapidly declines to achieve microenvironment transformation to promote bone remodeling. RANKL/OPG plays an important role in bone remodeling. Moreover, TGF-β1 receptors rapidly decline in the fibrous area, leading a decline of cell proliferation capacity to enter differentiation and maturity. After sufficient remodeling and mineralization, new mature lamellar bone similar to the natural bone structure are formed