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Effects of microglia on astrocytes in SCI. Anti-inflammatory cytokines including insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) and the combined effect of IL-1α, TNF, and C1q promote the activation and proliferation of astrocytes. Anti-inflammatory factors, such as TGF-β and FGF, to deactivate astrocytes. Astrocytes activate microglia via GM-CSF and CCL2. Activated microglia and astrocytes are essential parts of glial scars in the injured spinal cord.
