Table 4.

Molecular interactions/chemistries and physicochemical properties in the next generation bioinks and their implications for 3D bioprinting and clinical translation

Molecular interactions/chemistries	Physicochemical properties	Implications for printing, translation, signaling paradigm
Click chemistry	Covalent crosslinking	Postprinting stabilization of print
Helical‐helical, β‐sheet‐strand, helical‐β‐sheet	Physical crosslinking, thermal gelation, hydrocolloid network	Printing at physiological and room temperature, graded gelation, free standing structures, printing gels, printing high cell concentration 10–100 million cells per cc
Hydrophobic (lipid–lipid, cholesterol derived structures, liquid crystal moieties)	LCST a) behavior, shear thinning,	Degradable fugitive phase for de novo evolution of controlled macro architecture for vascularization and innervation.
Host–guest (cyclodextrins), Schiff's base	Shear thinning	Room temperature printing
Peptide–peptide, peptide–polysaccharide, aptamer–peptide, light sensitive proteins (rhodopsin)	Multi network (double, triple) hydrogels, active cellular remodeling, potentially shear‐thinning, room temperature gelation, pH‐triggered gelation and disassembly, super elastic scaffolds,	Modulation of viscosity and biofunctionality during print (in line processing), biofunctionalization, extreme customization
Light sensitive moieties (azo benzene) and proteins	Light activated networks	Mechanobiology, light responsive systems, systems responsive optogenetics
Light activated cross linking (thiol‐e(y)ne, tyrosine‐tyrosine) and thermally activated systems as Diels‐Alder, inverse electron donor Diels‐Alder		In‐line processing using light, modulating viscosity during print, real‐time stabilization of printed structures, biofunctionalization during print, extreme customization of biology

^a) LCST = lower critical solution temperature.