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. 2022 Jan 25;41:35. doi: 10.1186/s13046-022-02251-2

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© The Author(s) 2022

Open AccessThis article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

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Fig. 1 — Schematic representation of GBM TME. A GBM TME is composed of various cell types. B Factors impeding translation of GBM immunotherapy treatments: (i) the BBB limiting drug delivery efficacy, (ii) the relatively low infiltration of T cells as well as their high exhaustion marker expression, (iii) the high infiltration of immunosuppressive cells (such as Tregs, TAMs and MDSCs) in the TME and (iv) the infiltrative and heterogeneous characteristics of GBM cells. (Abbreviations: GBM = Glioblastoma; LAG-3 = Lymphocyte activation gene 3 protein; MDSC = Myeloid-derived suppressive cell; NK = Natural killer; PD-1 = Programmed cell death-1; TAM = Tumor-associated microglia and macrophage; TIM-3 = T cell immunoglobulin and mucin domain containing-3)