Table 2.

Nano-biosensor designs addressing the detection and quantification of Coronavidae family members considering types of clinical sample, nanomaterial, bioreceptor molecules, and transducers.

		Nano-material	Linear Range	Immobilized Viral Element	LOD	Transducer		References
IMMUNOSENSOR	MERS-CoV	AuNPs	0.001–100ng/mL	Recombinant protein S	1.0 pg/mL	Voltametric		[15]
	SARS-CoV	In2O3 nanowire	nd	Antibody mimic proteins (AMPs) to detect N protein	< 1 nM	FET		[54]
		Gold binding polypeptides	nd	Fusion of polypetpides to coronavirus surphace antigen	200ng/mL	SPR		[51]
	SARS-CoV-2	Graphene	nd	Specific antibody against S protein	1.6 x 101 pfu/mL and 2.42 x 102 copies/mL	FET		[13]
		AuNPs	1 fM - 1 µM	Monoclonal antibody	0.09 pM	Electrochemical		[44]
		AuNPs	nd	Anti-human IgM and IgG antibodies	nd	Colorimetric		[35]
		LNPs	nd	Recombinant N protein	nd	Optical		[42]
		AuNPs	nd	Antibodies against surface proteins - S, E and M	Positive if Ct <35 at real-time PCR<<	Colorimetric		[53]
		AuNPs	nd	N protein monoclonal antibodies	103-104 virus copies/0.1mL corresponding to 10-18 M of N protein	Colorimetric		[55]
		Carbon nanofiber-modified	0.1 pg/mL - 1 μg/mL	N protein	0.8 pg/mL	Electrochemical		[14]
		Graphene	nd	S antibodies	0.02 mg/mL S recombinant protein	Electrochemical		[17]
		AuNRs AuNRs.	nd	Recombinant N protein S antibodies	F10 4E-5; F11 8.5E-5, and BK7-prism 7E-5 RIU*	SPP SPR		[56] [57]
GENOSENSOR	MERS-CoV	AuNPs	nd	30 bp dsDNA from upE and ORF1a	1 pmol/μL		Colorimetric- LSPR e	[58]
		AgNPs	nd	acpcDNA	1.53 nM		Colorimetric	[59]
	SARS-CoV	QDs	nd	RNA aptamer	0.1 pg/mL		Optical	[48]
		AuNPs	2.5 - 50 pmol/L	ssDNA	2.5 pmol/L		Electrochemical	[49]
	SARS-CoV-2	AuNPs	1 pM – 1 nM	Synthetic cDNA	0.22 pM		PPT + LSPR	[47]
		SPCnAuE	2.5 – 50 pM	30-mer oligonucleotide	2.5pM		Voltametric	[60]
		NPs	nd	FITC-labeled primers from ORF1ab and N gene	12 copies/reaction		mRT-LAMP coupled toLFB h	[61]
		pcMNPs (iron)	10 - 105 copies/reaction	ORF l ab and N gene	10 copies/reaction		RT-PCR i	[62]
		Au-colloid		cDNA - RdRp gene	0.05 ng RNA		Colorimetric	[46]
		AuNPs	0.2 – 3 ng μL-1	ASOS	0.18 ng/μL		SPR-colorimetric	[21]
		Iron oxide NPs	10 – 100 pM	cDNA - RdRp gene	0.4 fM		Optomagnetic	[43]
		AuNPs	nd	ssDNA against N gene sequence	6.9 copies/μL		Electrochemical	[63]

LOD – minimum limit of detection (as included in the original articles); AuNPs - gold nanoparticles; FET - field-effect transistors; SPR - surface plasmon resonance; SPP - surface plasmon polaritons;; LSPR - surface plasmon resonance; PPT -plasmonic photothermal; mRT-LAMP - transcription loop-mediated isothermal amplification; LBF - lateral flow biosensor; RT-PCR - real-time reverse-transcription; C2CA - circle-to-circle amplification; ssDNA - single strand DNA; IgM - immunoglobulin M; IgG – immunoglobulin G; LNPs -lanthanide-doped polystirene nanoparticles; AuNRs - gold nanorods; Ct – cycle threshold; upE - E gene; ORF - open reading frames; RdRp - RNA-dependent RNA 34 polymerase; SA-DNPs -streptavidin-coated nanoparticles; pcMNPs – carboxil-coated magnetic nanoparticles; acpcDNA: pyrrolidinyl peptide nucleic acid; QDs -quantum dots; RNA aptamer – synthetic RNA probe from N protein gene; ssDNA: 45-nucleotide sequence from N protein gene; cDNA synthetized from RdRp and ORF1 ab; SPCnAuE: nanogold structured-screen-printed carbon electrode; 30-mer oligonucleotide; synthetic sequence from SARS genome comprising the 29218-29247 region; FITC (fluorescein)-/digoxin- and biotin-labeled primers; pcMNPs - poly (amino ester) with carboxyl groups (PC)-coated magnetic nanoparticles; ASOS - thiol-modified antisense oligonucleotides specific for N-gene; cDNA – complementary DNA synthetized from RNA sequence