Table 2.
Recent scientific publication on glyphosate, glyphosate-based herbicides and AMPA toxicity in animal cell cultures and animal experimental models.
| Model | Exposure Time | Tested Concentrations |
Effects | Ref. | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Glyphosate (99.8%) |
Cherax quadricarinatus | 60 days | 10 and 40 mg/L | Decrease in lipid levels in muscle, as well as protein level in hepatopancreas and muscle | [83] |
| Glyphosate (99%) |
Danio rerio | 96 h | 1.7–100 mg/L | Genotoxicity, morphological abnormalities | [84] |
| Glyphosate (˃98%) |
Hormone-dependent breast cancer (T47D cell line) | 24 h | 10−9–10−3 mM | Increase in cell proliferation | [85] |
| Glyphosate (95%) |
Human keratinocytes (HaCaT cell line) |
24 h | 10–70 mM | Loss of cell integrity, overproduction of H2O2, membrane damage, apoptosis induction, genotoxicity | [86] |
| Glyphosate (95%) |
Buccal epithelial cells (TR146 cell line) | 20 min | >10 mg/L | Increased lactate dehydrogenase release, DNA damage | [87] |
| Glyphosate (99%) |
Human hepatocarcinoma (HepG2 cell line) |
4 and 24 h | 0.5–3.5 µg/mL | Micronuclei formation, lower antioxidant capacity | [80] |
| Glyphosate (90%) |
Sprague Dawley rat | 5 weeks | 5–500 mg/kg | Decreased average daily feed intake and decreased total sperm count | [88] |
| Glyphosate (not specified) |
Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) | 24 h | 1–1000 µM | Increase in blood–brain barrier permeability to fluorescein, changes in neuronal cells metabolic activity and increase of glucose uptake in brain’s microvascular endothelial cells | [89] |
| Glyphosate (40%) |
Daphnia magna | 60 days | 0.5–4.05 mg/L of glyphosate | Reduction of juvenile’s size, decreased fecundity and longevity | [90] |
| Glyphosate (not specified) |
Danio rerio | 21 days | 10–100 mg/L of glyphosate | Reduced egg production, increase in early-stage embryo mortalities and premature hatching, disruption of the steroidogenic biosynthesis pathway, oxidative stress | [91] |
| Glyphosate (not specified) |
Danio rerio | 48 h | 50 µg/mL of glyphosate | Structural abnormalities in the atrium and ventricle, irregular heart looping, situs inversus and decreased heartbeats | [92] |
| Glyphosate (not specified) |
Danio rerio | 15 days | 65 µg/mL of glyphosate | Increase in oocytes’ diameter, presence of concentric membranes appearing as myelin-like structures, increase in expression of SF-1 in oocytes | [93] |
| Glyphosate (not specified) |
Danio rerio | 96 h | 0.01–0.5 mg/L of glyphosate | Decrease locomotion in adult zebrafish, decreased ocular distance in zebrafish larvae | [94] |
| Glyphosate (not specified) |
Sprague Dawley rat | 2 weeks | 50–150 mg/kg of glyphosate | Hypoactivity, decrease in specific binding to D1 dopamine receptors in the nucleus accumbens, decrease in basal extracellular dopamine levels and high-potassium-induced dopamine release in striatum | [95] |
| Roundup (480 g/L) |
Piaractus mesopotamicus | 48 h | 3.0–4.5 mg /L of glyphosate | Cytoplasmic vacuolization, lipid accumulation, nuclear and cellular membrane alterations and glycogen depletion in the liver | [96] |
| Touchdown® (523 g/L) |
Caenorhabditis elegans | 30 min | 3–10% of glyphosate | Inhibition of mitochondria’s complex II, decrease in ATP levels, increase in H2O2 levels | [97] |
| Roundup (410 g/L) |
Human alveolar carcinoma (A549 cell line) | 2 h | 100 µg/L | Inhibition of cell proliferation, collapse of mitochondrial membrane, oxidative DNA damage, DNA single-strand breaks and double-strand breaks | [98] |
| Roundup (180 g/L) |
Daphnia magna | 60 days | 0.5–4.05 mg/L of glyphosate | Reduction of juvenile size, growth, fecundity and increased abortion | [90] |
| Roundup (180 g/L) |
Drosophila melanogaster | 24 h | 15 µg/mL | Decreased lifespan, fecundity, cell viability of ovarian sheath cells, negative geotaxis response, increase in protein carboxyl levels and enhanced caspase activity indicative of pro-apoptotic process | [99] |
| Herbolex (486 g/L) |
Daphnia magna | 48 h | 20–137 µg/L | Increased lipid peroxidation, feed inhibition, increase in antioxidant enzyme activity | [100] |
| Roundup (480 mg/L) |
Poecilia reticulata | 96 h | 0.34–5.2 mg/L of glyphosate | Modulation of energy and nucleic acids metabolism, cytoskeleton and proteins; progressive histopathological damage in the gills | [101] |
| Roundup (450 g/L) |
Buccal epithelial cells (TR146 cell line) | 20 min | >10 mg/L of glyphosate | Increase in nucleoplasmatic bridges, nuclear aberrations and micronuclei | [87] |
| Roundup (360 g/L) |
Albino rats | 12 weeks | 3.6–248.4 mg/kg of glyphosate | Accumulation of glyphosate residue in kidney tissue, histopathological lesions in kidneys, distorted renal cortical histoarchitecture, expanded urinary space due to glomerulosclerosis, and tubular necrosis | [102] |
| Roundup (360 g/L) |
Mice | 6 and 12 weeks | 250 or 500 mg/kg/day | Decrease in body weight gain and locomotor activity, increase of anxiety and depression-like behavior levels | [103] |
| Roundup (360 g/L) |
Albino rats | 12 weeks | 3.6–248.4 mg/kg/day of glyphosate |
Decrease in the mean level of testosterone, FHS and LH in the blood, and increase of prolactin, excessive production of ROS, reduction in sperm count, percentage mobility and increase in abnormal sperm cells, degenerative testicular lesions | [104] |
| Roundup (360 g/L) |
Anguilla anguilla | 1 and 3 days | 18 and 36 µg/L | Increment of catalase activity in gills, decrease of superoxide dismutase activity in liver, increase in DNA damage | [105] |
| Roundup (360 g/L) |
Murine Sertoli cells (TM4 cell line) |
24 h | 10–10,000 mg/L | Decrease of succinate dehydrogenase activity, inhibition of glutathione-S-transferase, disruption of cell detoxification systems, increase of cytoplasmatic lipid droplets | [106] |
| Roundup (360 g/L) |
Colossoma macropomum | 96 h | 10 and 15 mg/L of glyphosate |
Alterations in respiratory epithelium structure, changes in hematological parameters, increase ROS production, increase in DNA damage in red blood cells and inhibition of cholinesterase activity in fish brain | [107] |
| Roundup (120 g/L) |
Danio rerio | 21 days | 0.01–10 mg/L of glyphosate |
Increase in early-stage embryo mortalities and premature hatching, disruption of the steroidogenic biosynthesis pathway, oxidative stress | [91] |
| Roundup (120 g/L) |
Daphnia magna | 48 h | 100–300 mg/L | Loss of whole body enzyme activity and loss of cells integrity | [108] |
| Roundup | Danio rerio | 96 h |
0.01–0.5 mg/L | Decrease in locomotion in adult zebrafish, ocular distance in zebrafish larvae and decrease in aggressive behavior in adult zebrafish, impairment in memory in adult zebrafish | [94] |
| AMPA | Daphnia magna | 21 days | 7.4–120 mg/L | Decreased neonate production | [109] |
| AMPA | Bufo spinosus | 16 days | 0.07–3.6 µg/L | Decrease in embryonic survival, development delay, modification of body morphology | [110] |
| AMPA | Danio rerio | 24–96 h | 1.7–100 mg/L | Genotoxicity, morphological abnormalities | [84] |
| AMPA | Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) | 24 h | 0.1–1000 µM | Increase in blood–brain barrier permeability to fluorescein, changes in neuronal cells metabolic activity and glucose uptake in brain microvascular endothelial cells | [89] |
| AMPA | Human erythrocytes | 4 and 24 h | 0.01–5 mM | Increased ROS production, hemolysis and hemoglobin oxidation | [111] |
| AMPA | Paracentrotus lividus | 24 and 48 h | 1–100 µg/L | Development delay, increase of respiration rate, reduction in larvae size | [112] |
Notes: Glyphosate content in glyphosate-based herbicides is denoted as percentage under the formulation name. For studies regarding glyphosate-based herbicides where the authors calculated and expressed their results as the glyphosate concentration used, are listed as, for example, “mg/L of glyphosate”, while studies mentioning, for example, “mg/L” are relative to the concentration of the whole glyphosate-based herbicide.