. 2022 Jan 10;16(1):e0010075. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0010075

Table 7. West Nile virus seroprevalence studies carried out in humans between 1950 and 2019.

Country	Year of the study	Seroprevalence rate	References
Algeria	1965	0%	[44 ^e,113 ^e]
Algeria	1973, 1975	14.6%	[44 ^e,113 ^e]
Algeria	1973, 1975	58.3%	[44 ^e,113 ^e]
Algeria	1973, 1975	3.5%	[44 ^e,113 ^e]
Algeria	1976	37.5%	[44 ^e,113 ^e]
Algeria	1976	19%	[44 ^e,113 ^e]
Algeria	1994	83.3%	[44 ^e]
Burundi	1980–1982	0%	[114 ^e]
Cameroon	1990	0%	[115 ^f^,^o]
Cameroon	2000–2003	6.6%	[116 ^l]
Central African Republic	1964	High arbovirus circulation (∙∙)	[117 ^e]
Central African Republic	1975–1976	2.3%	[117 ^e]
Central African Republic	1979	WNV-positive results (∙∙)	[118 ^d^,ⁿ]
Democratic Republic of Congo	1998	66%	[119 ⁱ]
Egypt	1950	70%	[105 ^g^,ⁿ]
Egypt	1951–1954	61% (44% < 15 years old; 72% > 15 years old)	[105 ^g^,ⁿ]
Egypt	1952	(∙∙)	[148 ^e]
Egypt	1999–2002	35% Upper Egypt	[106 ^f^,^l]
Egypt	1999–2002	27% Middle Egypt	[106 ^f^,^l]
Egypt	1999–2002	14% Lower Egypt	[106 ^f^,^l]
Egypt	1999–2002	1% North Sinai	[106 ^f^,^l]
Egypt	1999–2002	7% South Sinai	[106 ^f^,^l]
Ethiopia	1959–1962	(∙∙)	[149 ^e]
Gabon	1975	(∙∙)	[121 ^f]
Gabon	1975	KOUTV (∙∙)	[12 ^e]
Gabon	21st century	27.2%	[121 ^f]
Ghana	2008	Children: 1.4% IgM, 4.8% IgG; Adults: 27.9%	[109 ^f]
Kenya	1959–1962	(∙∙)	[149 ^e]
Kenya	1966–1968	3.2% Central Nyanza	[122 ^d]
Kenya	1966–1968	13.8% Kitui District	[122 ^d]
Kenya	1966–1968	65.3% Malindi district	[122 ^d]
Kenya	1987	0.9%	[123 ^p]
Kenya	2009–2012	12.4%	[124 ^f,125 ^f^,^l]
Kenya	2016–2017	10.2% Turkana	[126 ^l]
Madagascar	Since 1975	(∙∙)	[51 ^d]
Madagascar	1996	2.1%	[127 ^e]
Madagascar	1999	10.6%	[127 ^e]
Madagascar	2011	IgM antibodies	[128 ^l^,^f]
Mali	2009–20013	0.27% IgM	[129 ^f]
Mali	2009–20013	39.1% IgG	[129 ^f]
Morocco	2011	11.8% (4.5% Meknes; 12% Rabat; 18.8% Kenitra)	[130 ^l]
Morocco	2019	4.39% positive to flaviviruses (75% of which confirmed WNV + by VNT)	[69 ^f^,^g]
Mozambique	2012–2013	0%	[131 ^f^,^o]
Mozambique	(∙∙)	(∙∙)	[34 ^e]
Namibia	1983	%	[132 ^e]
Nigeria	1970s	28%	[133 ^d]
Nigeria	1990s	65%	[133 ^d]
Nigeria	2008	25%	[107 ^f]
Nigeria	2011–2012	73.2%	[134 ^f^,^l]
Nigeria	2013	0% IgM	[135 ⁱ]
Nigeria	2016	7.5% IgM	[136 ⁱ]
Nigeria	21st century	1.2% IgM; 80.16% IgG	[7 ^f^,^l]
Nigeria	21st century	40%	[7 ^d^,^f]
Senegal	1972–1975	(∙∙)	[120 ^d^,]
Senegal	1988–1990	IgM < 15 years old (4.6% out of 456 and 3.5% out of 396 children tested)	[137 ^f]
Senegal	1989	80% (5–15 years old; 45% < 5 years old; 98% > 15 years old)	[61 ^l,66 ^f]
Senegal	1991	22.7% of adults; 18% < than 15 years old	[66 ^f]
Sierra Leone	2006–2008	IgG in 50% of patients presenting severe symptoms, IgM 1/4 of them	[111 ^f]
Sierra Leone	2006–2008	1.2% IgM	[138 ⁱ]
South Africa	1950	2.6%	[139 ^e]
South Africa	1960s	4.7%	[140 ^d]
South Africa	(∙∙)	1%	[141 ^d^,^g]
South Africa	1962–1964	10.22%	[140 ^d]
South Africa	1970s	7% Central Highveld Region; 17% Karoo; 2% Kwazulu Natal	[7 ^f^,^o]
South Africa	1974	55% - 85%	[19 ^e,49 ^e]
South Africa	2009	17.47%	[142 ^f^,^g]
South Africa	2017	woman (IgM positive—2 weeks later IgG positive), man (IgM and IgG at 5 days after the beginning of the symptoms)	[143 ^f]
South Sudan	1951–1954	40%	[45 ^e,105 ^g^,ⁿ]
Sudan	After the epidemics of 1998	59% IgG antibodies	[144 ^p]
Tanzania	1971	17.4%	[145 ^g]
Tunisia	1968	1.80%	[90 ^d^,^f]
Tunisia	1970s	4.7% (3.8% Djerba region; 7.8% Tunis; 7% Gabes; 9% other Tunisian regions)	[91 ^g^,^o]
Tunisia	1997	86%, including 5 fatalities	[7 ^f^,ⁱ,105 ⁿ^,ⁿ,107 ^f]
Tunisia	1997	9 IgM positive results	[7 ^f^,ⁱ,105 ⁿ^,ⁿ,107 ^f]
Tunisia	2007	12∙5% (27.7% Kerouan, 7.5% Sfax, 0.7% Bizerte)	[91 ^g^,^o,104 ^f^,^l]
Tunisia	2018	24%	[21 ⁱ]
Uganda	1984	16% of anti-flavivirus antibodies (probably due to WNV)	[146 ^d]
Zambia	2010	10.3%	[147 ^f]

(∙∙) Not defined; antibodies detection via

^d = “hemagglutination-inhibition test (HIT)”

^e = “serological surveys, type of antibodies detection tests non specified”

^f = “epitope-blocking enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA)”

^g = “virus-neutralization test (VNT)”

^h = “micro virus-neutralization test (micro-VNT)”

ⁱ = “immunoglobulin M (IgM)-specific ELISA”

^l = “plaque reduction neutralization test (PRNT)”

^m = “flavivirus microsphere immunoassay (MIA)”

ⁿ = “complement fixation test (CFT)”

^o = “indirect immunofluorescent assays (IFA)”

^p = “enzyme immunoassay (EIA)”