TABLE 3.

Opioids affect the apoptosis of macrophages.

Opioids	Cell type/animal model	Mechanism or approach	Organelles involved	References
Morphine	J 774.16 cells	Induces oxidative stress; caspase-3 activation	Mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum	Bhat et al. (2004)
Morphine	J774 cells	Through opiate receptors via P38 MAPK phosphorylation	Mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum	Singhal et al. (2002)
		TGF-β and iNOS activate proteins involved in exogenous (Fas and FasL) and endogenous (p53 and Bax) cell death pathways
Morphine	J774 cells	The generation of TGF-β	Mitochondria	Singhal et al. (2000)
	Murine peritoneal Mf
Morphine	Sprague Dawley rats	Accumulation of p53 (the induction phase of apoptosis); accumulation of Bax and activation of ICE-1 (the effector phase)	Mitochondria	Singhal et al. (1998)
Morphine	FVB/N mice	Heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1)	Mitochondria	Patel et al. (2003)