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. 2022 Jan 22;17:299–331. doi: 10.2147/IJN.S347187

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© 2022 Fakhri et al.

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Dysregulated signaling pathways in NDDs.

Abbreviations: AD, Alzheimer’s disease; ALS, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis; Cyt c, cytochrome c; ERK, extracellular signal-regulated kinase; HD, Huntington’s disease; iNOS, inducible nitric oxide synthase; JAK, Janus kinase; MAPK, mitogen-activated protein kinase; mTOR, mammalian target of rapamycin; NF-κB, nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells; PD, Parkinson’s disease; PI3K, phosphoinositide 3-kinases; RNS, reactive nitrogen species; ROS, reactive oxygen species; STAT, signal transducer and activator of transcription.