Figure 2.

Schematic representation of signaling pathways involved in pesticide-induced reactive nitrogen species (RNS) signaling and oxidative stress. Pesticides including cypermethrin and permethrin increase nitric oxide (NO) and Ca²⁺ levels which increases reactive RNS signaling, thereby increasing oxidative stress in the cell. Pesticides can also lead to Keap1/Nrf2/ARE activation as well as the NF-κB pathway. Increased RNS may induce lipid, protein, and DNA oxidation, resulting in mitochondrial dysfunction and apoptosis.