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. 2022 Jan 14;11:821785. doi: 10.3389/fonc.2021.821785

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Copyright © 2022 Wu Chuang, Kepp, Kroemer and Bezu

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

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Direct cytotoxic effects of local anesthetics. Scheme summarizing direct effects of local anesthetics on cancer cells including the regulation of signaling pathways that control proliferation, survival and migration of cancer cells. Ca2+, calcium ion; CHOP, C/EBP Homologous protein; Cyt, Cytoplasm; DNMT, DNA methyltransferase; EGFR, epidermal growth factor receptor; ER, endoplasmic reticulum; Ext, extracellular space; IGFR, insulin growth factor receptor; Mg2+, magnesium ion; Na+, sodium ion; TNFR, tumor necrosis factor receptor; ROS, reactive oxygen species; PERK, protein kinase R-like ER kinase.