. 2021 Dec 22;82:105887. doi: 10.1016/j.ultsonch.2021.105887

Table 2.

A summary of US-driven synthesis of nanobiomaterials based on varying sonication-triggered physical and chemical mechanisms.

Nanobiomaterials and their potential biomedical application	US-assisted synthesis	Sonication conditions	Product yield	Ref.
Herceptin-stabilised graphene for tumour-targeted drug delivery	US-assisted one-step graphite exfoliation and stabilisation of Herceptin	Sonication with an ultrasonic probe at 15 W with solution placed in an ice bath, and sonication time ranged from 30 min to 30 h.	Less than four layers of the graphene sheet	[91]
Cumin oil nanoemulsions for cancer therapy	US-assisted emulsification	Ultrasonicator with 750 W input power, 20 kHz for 5, 10 and 15 min	Diameter ranges from 10.4 ± 0.5 nm to 149.33 ± 1.15 nm	[95]
Mono-core magnetite-silica nanocomposites for targeted drug delivery and MRI	Co-precipitation with surface-protection effect preventing NPs agglomeration	Cleaner-type ultrasonication bath 42 kHz, 100 W	Average diameter 100 nm	[97]
Amino-silane functionalised SPION	Sonochemical functionalising of APTES on SPION under high-speed collision induced by shock waves	20 kHz Vibra-Cell, 750 W ultrasonic horn in an ice bath at 1, 10 and 20 min of sonication time	Diameter ranges from 2 to 25 nm	[98]
HAp/TiO₂ nanocomposite for bone tissue ingrowth	US-assisted sol–gel and co-precipitation	Ultrasonic processor at 20 kHz and 750 W with one pulsation per 2 s, at time intervals of 15, 30, 45 and 60 min	Semi-spherical and agglomerated, 17–20 nm	[101]
Zn-containing NPs for nanomedicine and wound care	USP	Zn precursor atomised by ultrasonic atomizer (metal mesh) into the reaction zone of laser pyrolysis where the precursor mixtures were decomposed under continuous-wave CO₂ laser beam at a wavelength of 10.6 μm and laser power of up to ∼ 100 W, the temperature of reaction zone was estimated to range from 800 to 1400 °C	Spherical and rod-shaped particles	[106]
Calcium phosphate microspheres as anti-angiogenic chemoembolisation agent	USP	Solution was sprayed into a two part-furnace (300 and 850 °C) with an ultrasonic vibrator at 2.4 MHz	0.5–3 μm	[108]
HAp and BAp immunoceramics	USP	Ultrasonic vibrator at 2.4 MHz generated droplets that were transferred by air flow into the heating zone of the furnace having two different temperatures (400 and 1000 °C)	Hollow spheres of 0.5–1.5 μm	[109]
Reactive MBs of surface-thiolated BSA	US-induced formation of disulphide bonding on BSA	Sonic dismembrator at 20 kHz was inserted into a jacketed beaker. US impulse of 23% amplitude applied for 45 s	Spherical MBs of 2.5 μm and shell thickness 155 nm	[114]
Proteinaceous HSA nanocapsules with biocompatible plant oil cores	US-induced generation of perhydroxyl radical oxidises cysteine residue	Micro-tip of Bandelin HD 2070 sonifier placed at the interface of the two-phase mixture, sonication with an acoustic power of ∼ 253 W.cm⁻² at 40% amplitude for 2 min	Capsule sizes ranging from 655 to 862 nm, PDI 0.11 to 0.3	[115]
Water-loving drug-loaded micro-organogel with thermo and redox-sensitive behaviour	Sonication initiated sulfhydryl-crosslinking of BSA shell	Sonication at 20 kHz in pulse sonication mode, insertion of an ultrasonic probe into layered biphasic solution contained in a cylindrical tube. The temperature was maintained at 37 °C as organogel was thermo-sensitive	Spherical, average diameter of 800 nm, range of 300 nm to 2.0 μm	[120]
Simvastatin encapsulated in the sodium alginate and chitosan microsphere for gastric retention and controlled delivery	US-induced cross-linking of polymer coating	Continuous sonication at 20 ± 3 kHz, ultrasonic power of 130 W and temperature control at 50 °C with 2 cm probe sonicator immersed in a glass beaker	0.92 to 3 μm	[124]
Starch NPs as biocarriers	Disintegration, esterification and emulsification of starch under the US	Ultrasonic processor of 500 W nominal power at 20 kHz with titanium probe coupled with a water bath to maintain the temperature at 25 °C. Amplitude of 85% with a different exposure time of 20 min interval	48 to 83 nm, PDI of 0.224 to 0.91	[117]
AgNPs and AuNPs as promising antibacterial agents and for drug delivery	Sonochemical reduction	30 min US irradiation with US probe at 40 kHz fand 68 W	AuNPs: 10–50 nm, AgNPs: 5–20 nm	[126]
AgNPs with antibacterial effect against E. coli and S. aureus	Sonochemical reduction	Sonicator bath of 20 kHz until no further color change	Average diameter 16.07 ± 3.192 nm, 13 nm	[127], [128]
ZnO nanorice with anticancer activity	Sonochemical reduction and immobilisation of SMEAF	5 cycles sonication of 15 s each with a 12 s break with US horn in a water bath at 45 W	Mean size of 311 nm, PDI of 0.402	[129]
Fe₃O₄@bio-MOF effective against leishmaniasis	Combined US effects for linking of bio-MOF building blocks and distribution of Fe₃O₄ NPs	Mixture was sonicated in an ultrasonic bath at ambient temperature for 30 min at 40 kHz and using 30 and 60 W	Surface area of 1096 m².g⁻¹, pore size 13–14 Å	[130]
PMMA/Fe₃O₄ nanocomposites	Two-step synthesis: co-precipitation of salt mixtures and in situ polymerisation through free radicals formed during transient cavitation	Continuous sonication of the reaction mixture for 30 min under nitrogen atmosphere at 20 kHz using a probe-type micro-processor	Average diameter of 76 to 116.6 nm	[134]
HAp nanoflowers for protein adsorption	Self-assembly of HA nanosheets	Continuous US irradiation at 28 kHz with 200 W for 40–90 min	Surface area of 77.3 to 181 m² g⁻¹	[135]
Chitosan microspheres and other responsive block copolymers microspheres	Crosslinking of chitosan via sonochemically generated radicals in aqueous solution	Sonication at room temperature in air or under nitrogen gas with 20 kHz US horn having 3 mm diameter micro tip placed between organic and aqueous phases. Sonication time ranged between 30 and 60 s, at 14 W.cm⁻². Ice bath was used for temperature control	Mean size of 8 ± 3 μm	[136]
Keratin-based microcapsules as potential biocarrier	Emulsification of keratose microcapsules	Sonication of an aqueous-organic mixture of keratose solution and toluene at 20 kHz and 150 W at room temperature for 3 min with stainless steel ultrasonic probe	Microcapsules of diameter 0.5 to 4 μm	[137]
Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate dicalcium (Ca₂FBP) porous microsphere for osteogenic differentiation	Sonochemically induced (acoustic cavitation effect) crystallisation of Ca₂FBP	Continuous ultrasonication at 28 kHz and 200 W at intervals of 20 min	Average surface area of 188.5 m² g⁻¹ and pore size of 30 nm	[138]
AuNPs as potential cancer treatment agents	US irradiation assisted the Turkevich-Frens method for gold reduction	Sonication at different irradiation power (60 to 210 W) for 1 h at room temperature with ultrasonic homogenizer coupled with titanium sonotrode	Average size of 12.2 to 16.2 nm	[139]
AgNPs anchored reduced graphene oxide nanosheet for selective and sensitive detection of glutathione	Sonochemical co-reduction of AgNO₃ and grapheme oxide, with resultant condensation of Ag⁺ on reduced graphene oxide	Dispersion of graphene oxide in water and sonication via a standing wave sonication system at 38 kHz and 50 W. Subsequent US induced reduction and deposition of silver with further sonication	Average size of 3 to 8 nm	[140]
Fe₃O₄@cellulose nanocrystal stabilised Pickering emulsion for drug delivery	Sonochemical induced fine Pickering emulsion of curcumin and co-precipitation of Fe₃O₄@cellulose nanocrystal	Dispersion and synthesis of Fe₃O₄@CNC under pulse sonication (10 s on and off) with a probe sonicator at 20 kHz for 2 and 5 min, respectively. Further sonication for 3 min at 60 W to produce fine Pickering emulsion	MNPs agglomeration with an average cluster diameter of 22.998 to 320.668 nm	[141], [142], [143]