Table 3.
Theoretical Framework Summary of Study Outcomes
| Author and Year/Reference # | Type of Participants | Theoretical Framework | Research Capacity | Attitude | Barriers |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Akerjordet, Lode, and Severinsson 201283 | Nurses | NIL |
Lacks confidence requires support >20% wanted to improve research skills as did 56% of the 8% engaged in research |
Positive – utility value Positive attitude to research by 40% all respondents |
Lack of designated time for research Lack of organisational support Lack of knowledge Lack of support including acceptance by colleagues, reward, and acknowledgement Lack of interest in research |
| Albert et al 201667 | Nurses | NIL |
Competent < 42% conducted research |
Positive – utility value Mid-range scores for value and confidence in conducting research |
Lack of knowledge Lack of support including acceptance by colleagues, reward, and acknowledgement Access to literature |
| Alison, Zafiropoulos, and Heard 201764 | Allied Health | NIL |
Lacks confidence requires support Ten of the 19 items at the individual level had a median score of ≤5 |
Positive – utility value Main motivators to performing research reported by participants included: to develop skills (84%, n=210) |
Lack of designated time for research Lack of funding including incentives and failed grants Lack of training/resources/dedicated research team Lack of confidence, competence, skills, or experience Lack of organisational support Lack of interest in research Access to literature |
| Bench, Dowie-Baker, and Fish 201974 | Nurses | NIL |
Lacks confidence requires support 27% respondents had desire to be involved in research. 87% reported never having published 61% never having presented at a conference |
Negative – no connection to researchers Research not part of the role - Unpleasant and scary |
Lack of designated time for research Lack of confidence, competence, skills, or experience Lack of training/resources/dedicated research team Lack of knowledge |
| Berthelsen and Holge-Hazelton 201584 | Nurses | NIL |
Lacks confidence requires support Interested in improving research skills |
Very positive – attainment, intrinsic and utility value. Low theoretical knowledge and practical research competencies | Lack of designated time for research Lack of confidence, competence, skills, or experience Lack of training/resources/dedicated research team Lack of support including acceptance by colleagues, reward, and acknowledgement Lack of interest in research |
| Borkowski, McKinstry, and Cotchett 201752 | Allied Health | NIL |
Lacks confidence requires support Low research capacity and culture with other work roles taking priority and lack of time and skills |
Positive – utility value Focus on developing skills but unable to overcome numerous barriers |
Lack of designated time for research Lack of confidence, competence, skills, or experience |
| Chan et al 201168 | Nurses | NIL |
Lacks confidence requires support Overwhelming lack of research experience but highly interested |
Very positive – attainment, intrinsic and utility value | Lack of confidence, competence, skills, or experience Lack of knowledge Lack of support including acceptance by colleagues, reward, and acknowledgement |
| Choo, Muninathan, Pung, and Ramanathan 201789 | Physicians | NIL |
Competent 34.8% unlikely to participate in research under present working conditions |
Negative – no connection to researchers Identified research benefits for patients and society (98.9%) and professional development (93.3%). However, less than half perceive research to be one of their job functions (49.7%) |
Lack of designated time for research Lack of funding including incentives and failed grants Lack of training/resources/dedicated research team Lack of support including acceptance by colleagues, reward, and acknowledgement |
| Cianciolo et al 202069 | Physicians | SCCT and Professional Identity Formation |
Competent Pakistan better alignment between clinicians’ research success and national priorities than U. S |
Very positive – attainment, intrinsic and utility value Clinicians and scientists resilient in pursuing research |
Lack of funding including incentives and failed grants |
| Connolly, Allum, Shaw, Pattison, and Dark 201875 | Physiotherapists | COM-B model. capability, opportunity, motivation, and behaviour |
Competent 84.7% indicated existing research experience. 60.8% had postgraduate qualifications at master’s level or above |
Very positive – attainment, intrinsic and utility value. 24.2% of respondents currently involved in research. 10.4% not interested in any research training. | Lack of designated time for research Lack of funding including incentives and failed grants Lack of confidence, competence, skills, or experience |
| Conradie, Duys, Forget, and Biccard 201816 | Physicians | NIL |
Lacks confidence requires support Potential for research once barriers are addressed. |
Very positive – attainment, intrinsic and utility value | Lack of training/resources/dedicated research team Lack of support including acceptance by colleagues, reward, and acknowledgement. Barriers to successful participation in ASOS related to resource limitations and not motivation of the clinician investigators. |
| Dannapfel, Peolsson, and Nilsen 201385 | Physiotherapists | NIL |
Lacks confidence requires support Research use Changes in practice based on research findings, which reflects changes in thinking rather than actual behaviour |
Very positive – attainment, intrinsic and utility value Positive attitudes to research and a strong motivation to use research in clinical practice |
Lack of designated time for research Lack of knowledge Lack of confidence, competence, skills, or experience Lack of support including acceptance by colleagues, reward, and acknowledgement Access to literature |
| Dannapfel, Peolsson, Stahl, Oberg, and Nilsen 201486 | Physiotherapists | Self-determination Theory SDT |
Lacks confidence requires support Motivation measured along continuum of autonomy from intrinsic – extrinsic-amotivated |
Very positive – attainment, intrinsic and utility value Autonomous forms of motivation were most common |
Lack of interest in research |
| Elphinston and Pager 201553 | Psychologists | NIL |
Competent Greater research capacity of psychologists compared with other allied health professions |
Negative – no connection to researchers Majority of psychologists in study perceived that research not part of their work role |
Lack of designated time for research Lack of funding including incentives and failed grants Lack of organisational support |
| Finch, Cornwell, Nalder, and Ward 201554 | Speech language pathologists | NIL |
Lacks confidence requires support Time constraints from their clinical caseload greatly limited their research engagement |
Fear of research Lack of research training was viewed as a key obstacle preventing participants who were not engaged in research from partaking in research related activities |
Lack of designated time for research Lack of organisational support Lack of support including acceptance by colleagues, reward, and acknowledgement Lack of training/resources/dedicated research team |
| Harvey, Plummer, Nielsen, Adams, and Pain 201655 | Allied Health | NIL |
Lacks confidence requires support Clinician researcher career trajectory |
Very positive – attainment, intrinsic and utility value Predisposing personal qualities and exposure to research facilitated a research debut by priming participants to take advantage of workplace opportunities for research. |
Lack of designated time for research Lack of funding including incentives and failed grants Lack of organisational support Lack of support including acceptance by colleagues, reward, and acknowledgement |
| Hiscock et al 201456 | Allied Health, Nurses, Physicians | NIL |
Competent Gender, age, occupation, and postgraduate qualification – were significantly associated with research activity |
Very positive – attainment, intrinsic and utility value Research-inactive clinicians identified protected research time as the key enabler of future research. |
Lack of designated time for research Lack of organisational support Lack of training/resources/dedicated research team Lack of support including acceptance by colleagues, reward, and acknowledgement |
| Ito-Ihara et al 201391 | Physicians | NIL |
Competent Physicians with experience in clinical trials |
Positive – utility value Showed interest in conducting clinical trials |
Lack of designated time for research Lack of funding including incentives and failed grants Lack of organisational support Lack of training/resources/dedicated research team Lack of support including acceptance by colleagues, reward, and acknowledgement Unrealistic workload and tedious research process |
| Janssen, Hale, Mirfin-Veitch, and Harland 201693 | Physiotherapists | NIL |
Lacks confidence requires support 56% of subjects had not attended a research course and 60% Confidence in conducting research ranged from 0 to 100 [mean 38 (SD 27)] |
Positive – utility value Physiotherapists were generally positive towards research but struggled with the concept of research. use of research vs participation in research. |
Lack of confidence, competence, skills, or experience |
| Jones, Griffith, Ubel, Stewart, and Jagsi 201632 | Physicians | NIL |
Competent Attrition from academic medicine may be more so due to a combination of conflicting values |
Very positive – attainment, intrinsic and utility value. Elite sample of highly apt and research-motivated clinician– investigators | Lack of designated time for research Lack of funding including incentives and failed grants Lack of support including acceptance by colleagues, reward, and acknowledgement |
| Lowrie et al 201576 | Pharmacists | NIL | Lacks confidence requires support. Active engagement in research is set out as a part of the role however, saw research as an activity that involved substantial personal cost for limited personal gain. |
Negative – no connection to researchers HSR for most pharmacists, for multiple reasons, was viewed as an exceptional activity rather than a core role. |
Lack of designated time for research Lack of confidence, competence, skills, or experience Lack of organisational support Lack of interest in research |
| Luckson, Duncan, Rajai, and Haigh 201879 | Allied Health, Nurses | NIL |
Lacks confidence requires support Individuals lacking adequate skills to undertake most aspects of research. |
Positive – utility value Partner with external links such as universities to do research. |
Lack of confidence, competence, skills, or experience Lack of organisational support Lack of knowledge Lack of support including acceptance by colleagues, reward, and acknowledgement |
| Mahmoud et al 201187 | Physicians | NIL |
Lacks confidence requires support Internet always source of literature search for 96.1% library 28%. |
Very positive – attainment, intrinsic and utility value. Advancement of knowledge strongest motivator for research 78.4% | Lack of designated time for research Lack of confidence, competence, skills, or experience Access to literature Lack of research opportunities |
| Mansi, Karam, and Chaaban 201970 | Physicians | NIL |
Competent 90% of the residents reported previous research experience during medical school, and 71.6% reported research during their undergraduate education |
Very positive – attainment, intrinsic and utility value. More than half (56%) of the residents surveyed agreed that resident research is a positive experience overall. | Lack of designated time for research Lack of knowledge Lack of interest in research |
| Marshall et al 201665 | Allied Health, Nurses, Physicians | NIL |
Competent (n = 113; 75.3%) reported they had actively participated in ethics-approved research. |
Very positive – attainment, intrinsic and utility value. Embedding research in clinical practice was critical and should be seen as core business | Lack of designated time for research Lack of research opportunities |
| McDonald 202092 | Allied Health, Nurses, Physicians | NIL | Lacks confidence requires support. Mainly involved in applying for research ethics board approvals, entering data, attending study start-up and update meetings, and screening patients for study eligibility. |
Positive – utility value Overall, 26% were “very satisfied” and 53% were “satisfied” with their jobs. |
Lack of designated time for research Lack of support including acceptance by colleagues, reward, and acknowledgement Unrealistic workload and tedious research process Felt undervalued |
| McMaster, Jammali-Blasi, Andersson-Noorgard, Cooper, and McInnes 201357 | Nurses | NIL |
Lacks confidence requires support Majority of respondents reported no current involvement in research |
Positive – utility value Over half of participants in our study reported having research goals for the following 12 months |
Lack of designated time for research Lack of confidence, competence, skills, or experience Lack of organisational support Lack of training/resources/dedicated research team Lack of interest in research |
| McNab, Berry, and Skapetis 201958 | Allied Health, Nurses | NIL |
Competent Six one-hour face to face research lectures improvement in self-reported levels of intention to become involved in research as well as research experience. |
Positive – utility value Significant change in the self-assessed level of experience was seen in a wide range of research areas. |
NIL |
| Mills et al 20193 | Physicians | NIL |
Competent 49% agreed that medical research is a lifestyle-friendly career |
Positive – utility value Improve human health, intellectual stimulation, and career diversity |
Lack of designated time for research Lack of funding including incentives and failed grants Lack of training/resources/dedicated research team Unrealistic workload and tedious research process |
| Oliver-Baxter, Brown, and McIntyre 201759 | Allied Health, Nurses, Physicians | NIL |
Competent Higher research degree graduates completed their RHD in the last 5 years |
Positive – utility value Importance of connection/relatedness. Stayers are more affiliated with professional organisation than leavers. |
Lack of designated time for research Lack of funding including incentives and failed grants |
| Pager, Holden, and Golenko 201260 | Allied Health | NIL |
Competent 43.9% of all participants had postgraduate qualifications. About half were required to do research as part of their role description. |
Very positive – attainment, intrinsic and utility value Desire to develop skills, increase job satisfaction, and address identified problems |
Lack of designated time for research Lack of funding including incentives and failed grants Lack of organisational support Lack of training/resources/dedicated research team Lack of knowledge Lack of support including acceptance by colleagues, reward, and acknowledgement |
| Paget, Lilischkis, Morrow, and Caldwell 201466 | Allied Health, Nurses, Physicians | NIL |
Competent Most participants identified themselves as having research skills or experience (63%) or formal research training (66%) |
Very positive – attainment, intrinsic and utility value. Enjoy participating in research (68%) and the departments value research (66%) | Lack of designated time for research Lack of funding including incentives and failed grants Lack of organisational support Lack of training/resources/dedicated research team Lack of support including acceptance by colleagues, reward, and acknowledgement |
| Pain, Petersen, and Fernando 201861 | Allied Health | NIL | Lacks confidence requires support. Research experience increased from 2011 to 2015 as did the need for support. Conducting research was part of role description. |
Positive – utility value Make a difference in clinical care (56.8%) and evaluate their service (52.6%). |
Lack of designated time for research |
| Sarwar et al 201880 | Pharmacists | NIL |
Competent Majority of the respondents (n = 112, 86.2%) agreed with the statement “I have the required abilities to participate in research”. |
Positive – utility value Uplifting of the profession, opportunity to gain knowledge, provide better services and increased patient care. |
Lack of designated time for research Lack of funding including incentives and failed grants Lack of knowledge Lack of research opportunities |
| Scala, Patterson, Stavarski, and Mackay 201971 | Nurses | Vroom’s expectancy theory framework: |
Competent 7 (20.6%) Master’s degree |
Positive – utility value Feeling empowered to make a difference and legitimize the profession |
Lack of organisational support |
| Siedlecki and Albert 201672 | Nurses | Research-Active Nurse Model |
Competent 65% Master’s Degree |
Very positive – attainment, intrinsic and utility value. Passion for enquiry; they enjoyed the process, despite the work and personal time involved. | Lack of designated time for research Lack of funding including incentives and failed grants Lack of knowledge |
| Silberman et al 201273 | Physicians | NIL |
Competent 30.7% had master’s or doctoral degrees in addition to medical degrees. |
Very positive – attainment, intrinsic and utility value. Had a consistent pattern of interest and involvement in research, starting well before residency. | Lack of funding including incentives and failed grants Barriers specific to women |
| Snelgrove and James 201177 | Nurses | NIL |
Competent Most participants had completed or were completing a master’s level degree |
Research frightening/Lack of connection and institutional support. Despite positive attitudes and some research education, many of the participants described research as ‘frightening’, with a lack of skills cited as a determinant of this fear | Lack of organisational support Lack of training/resources/dedicated research team |
| Stewart et al 201581 | Pharmacists | NIL |
Competent One third (32.9%, n = 70) had completed a postgraduate course, one third (30.0%, n = 64) were currently studying for a postgraduate qualification. |
Positive – utility value Generally held positive attitudes, with a median overall score of 13 (IQR 8–18), range possible 8–40, with 8 representing best positive attitudinal score |
Lack of organisational support Lack of training/resources/dedicated research team |
| Stewart et al 201978 | Pharmacists | Theoretical Domains Framework TDF |
Competent Postgraduate qualifications 58.1% (79) 14.7% (n=20) had been involved in research in the past and had plans to be involved in the future, and 12.5% (n=17) were currently involved in research. |
Positive – utility value Attainment value – 94% benefit to profession. Utility value – benefit to patients 90.45 benefit to self-72.6%. |
Lack of designated time for research Lack of organisational support Lack of support including acceptance by colleagues, reward, and acknowledgement |
| Sultana, Al Jeraisy, Al Ammari, Patel, and Zaidi 201682 | Pharmacists | Social cognitive theory |
Competent Prior research experience was reported by 59% of participants. More than 40% of participants hold Masters degree in pharmacy. |
Positive – utility value 70% of the participants were interested in doing practice-based research with nearly half willing to make time for it. |
Lack of designated time for research Lack of organisational support Lack of research opportunities |
| Torres et al 201790 | Nurses | NIL |
Competent Perceived knowledge and skills of the research process were above 3 on a 5-point scale (means ranged between 3.14 and 4.06). |
Positive – utility value Professional advancement, tenure and promotion, research record |
Lack of confidence, competence, skills, or experience Lack of knowledge Unrealistic workload and tedious research process |
| van Hoving and Brysiewicz 201788 | Physicians, Nurses | NIL |
Competent Honours or Masters degree - 44 (26.2%). Doctoral degree - 35 (20.8%) |
Positive – utility value Improvement of research skills (70.2%) and having research published (69.6%) |
Lack of designated time for research Lack of funding including incentives and failed grants Lack of training/resources/dedicated research team Access to literature |
| Wenke, Mickan, and Bisset 201762 | Allied Health | NIL | Lacks confidence requires support. 80% of interviews was a lack of belief or confidence in their capability to undertake aspects of research |
Positive – utility value Better patient outcomes |
Lack of designated time for research Lack of funding including incentives and failed grants Lack of confidence, competence, skills, or experience Lack of training/resources/dedicated research team Lack of support including acceptance by colleagues, reward, and acknowledgement |
| Wenke, Noble, Weir, and Mickan 202063 | Allied Health | Theoretical Domains Framework YES – TDF & COM- B system |
Lacks confidence requires support All ‘novice’ researchers and had no formal postgraduate research qualifications |
Fear of failure or feeling intimidated Clinicians described feeling overwhelmed or intimidated at the thought of undertaking research |
Lack of designated time for research Lack of funding including incentives and failed grants Lack of confidence, competence, skills, or experience |