TABLE 2.

Current state of knowledge: summary of current findings on the therapeutic effects of rhythm- and music-based interventions (RAS, MST, TIMP, and PSE) on motor rehabilitation.

	Main Findings
Rhythmic Auditory Stimulation (RAS)	° There is consistent evidence supporting the use of RAS for gait training in PD and sub-acute stroke, with repeated reports of significant improvements in gait spatiotemporal parameters (velocity, cadence, stride length). ° Recent studies with PD patients suggest positive effects on balance, freezing of gait, overall motor functioning, fear of fall, and number of falls. ° Emerging findings indicate that RAS optimizes conventional therapies, such as Deep Brain Stimulation, treadmill training, and motor imagery. ° However, there is a paucity of randomized controlled studies on the effectiveness of RAS for the treatment of gait impairments in acute stages of stroke, TBI, MS, CP, dementia or Alzheimer’s Disease, and older adults. Limited research is available on the effectiveness of RAS for the treatment of gait impairment in children.
Music-supported Therapy (MST)	° There is a strong body of research on the effectiveness of MST to improve functional movements of the paretic upper extremity in sub-acute and chronic stroke. However, there are no clinical studies in other populations. ° Further research is needed to better determine optimal MST treatment intensity and duration depending on the stroke stage. ° In relation to the application of music practice (e.g., piano/keyboard lessons, drumming), there is currently little research evidence on the effectiveness of active music playing to improve motor function in CP, TBI, MS, and older adults.
Therapeutic Instrumental Music Performance (TIMP)	° There is emerging evidence on the benefits of TIMP for upper extremity rehabilitation in stroke, with preliminary results suggesting significant improvements in fine and gross motor function. ° Recent studies indicate the feasibility of TIMP-based interventions for CP and PD; however, little is yet known about the potential application in other populations.
Patterned Sensory Enhancement (PSE)	° There is growing evidence of the benefits of rhythmically cued PSE exercises to improve upper extremity function in stroke, with recent findings showing associations between improved function and better regulation of muscle activation patterns of the paretic limb. ° Initial findings also demonstrate the effectiveness of PSE training for gross motor capacity for sit-to-stand movements in CP. No studies are yet available on other clinical populations.