TABLE 4.
Factors Related to Diet and Physical Activity and Cholelithiasis Risks
| Reference | Year | Study Design | Sample Size | Results Related to the Risk of Cholelithiasis | Implications for Practice |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Almario et al. | 2001 | A random trial (USA) | 13 postmenopausal females | Walnuts beneficially alter lipid distribution | Recommend nut consumption as part of a prescribed cholesterol-lowing diet |
| Leitzmann et al. | 1998 | An observational follow-up study based on survey (USA) | 45,813 (male); 8 years of follow-up | 30-min × five times per week endurance training prevents GD | Educate patients 30-min daily exercise to decrease the risk of GD |
| Leitzmann et al. | 1999 | An observational follow-up study based on survey (USA) | 60,290 (female) | Women sitting > 60 hrs per week higher chance for cholecystectomy | Recommend 2–3 hrs of recreational exercise per week to reduce the risk of GD |
| Misciagna et al. | 1999 | A random trial (Italy) | 390 | A sedentary lifestyle, diet rich in animal fat, refined sugar, poor in vegetable, fat, and fibers | Evaluate each patient’s eating and activity pattern, and set for realistic goals for each individual |
| Moerman et al. | 1994 | An observational follow-up study (Netherlands) | 860; 25 years of follow-up | Sugars (monosaccharaides and disaccharides), and calcium intake inversely associated | |
| Rajaram et al. | 2001 | A random trial (USA) | 23 (male = 14; female = 9) | Pecans rich in monounsaturated fat diet improve lipid profile, decreased TC, LDL, and increase HDL | |
| Tsai et al. | 2004b | An observational follow-up study based on survey (USA) | 45,756 (male); 457,305 person-years | Men consuming five or more units of nuts (peanuts and other nuts) per week (frequent consumption) had a lower risk of GS | Further assessment and study on the preventive effects of nuts on GD is recommended |
| Tsai et al. | 2005a and 2005b | An observational follow-up study based on survey (USA) | 51,529 (male) 70,408 (female); up to 16 years of follow-up | High intake of carbohydrate, GL and GI associated with the risk of symptomatic GD in men and women | Recommend dietary management to balanced diet (a variety of foods including fruits and vegetable, healthy carbohydrates, proteins, and fats) calorie reduction, and low carbohydrate diet |
| Tsai et al. | 2006b | An observational follow-up study based on survey (USA) | 77,090 (female); up to 16 years of follow-up | Greater fruit and vegetable consumption against risk of cholecystectomy in women | |
| Tsai et al. | 2008 | An observational follow-up study based on survey (USA) | 44,524 (male); up to 17 years of follow-up | High intake of long-chain saturated fats associated with GS and cholecystectomy | Encourage a diet low in animal fat, refined carbohydrates and of moderate caloric intake to decrease risks of GD |
| Tsunoda et al. | 2004 | A retrospective data-based study (Japan) | 1,264 (male) | Per daily calorie intake |
Note. GD = gallstone disease; GI = glycemic index; GL = glycemic load; GS = gallstones; HDL = high-density lipoprotein; LDL = low-density lipoprotein; TC = total cholesterol.