Table 1.
Studies of ketone supplementation or ketogenic diet with regards to cognition or AD biomarkers.
| Study (ref) | Population | Mean age (SD) | Intervention | N | Follow-up (weeks) | Outcomes | Positive outcomes (intervention group) | Nutritional changes | Side effects |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Philipps et al. (13) | Mild AD | 70 | RCT crossover, KD vs. CD | 26 | 12 × 2 | Cognition, IADL, QoL | Improved IADL performance and QoL | Weight loss | Mild. One (4%) withdrawal due to KD |
| Yomogida et al. (14) | Healthy adults | 66 | RCT crossover, MCT (50g vs. placebo) | 20 | – | Cognition, fMRI | Improved executive function and brain metabolism | Unassessed | Unassessed |
| Henderson et al. (15) | Mild to moderate AD | 77 | RCT, MCT 20g vs. placebo | 413 | 26 | Cognition, clinician's impression of change (ADCS-CGIC) | No cognitive change | No nutritional disorder reported | Minor digestive side effects |
| O'Neill et al. (16) | Healthy adults | 60 | RCT crossover, MCT (30 g) vs. placebo | 80 | 2 | Cognition, adverse effects | No cognitive change | Unassessed | Minor digestive side effects |
| Nagpal et al. (17) | Adults with MCI/CN | 65 | RCT crossover, KD vs. CD | 17 | 6 × 2 | CSF biomarkers, microbiome | CSF biomarkers improvement | Unassessed | Unassessed |
| Neth et al. (18) | Adults with SCI/MCI | 64 | RCT, KD vs. CD | 20 | 6 × 2 | Cognition, PET imaging, CSF biomarkers | Improved memory, brain metabolism and CSF biomarkers | Weight loss | None |
| Fortier et al. (19) | Adults with MCI | 72 | RCT MCT (30 g) vs. placebo | 122 | 26 | cognition | Improved cognition memory, executive function, language | Stable weight | Minor digestive adverse effects |
| Xu et al. (20) | Mild moderate AD | 75 | RCT crossover, MCT (17 g)-leucin vs. placebo | 46 | 4 × 2 | cognition | Improved cognition | Unassessed | None |
| Abe et al. (21) | Nursing home residents | 85 | RCT, MCT (6 g)-leucin vs. placebo | 64 | 13 | cognition | Improved cognition | Unassessed | None |
| Ashton et al. (22) | Healthy students | 20 | RCT, MCT (12 or 18 g) vs. placebo | 30 | 5 | cognition | Improved executive function/working memory | Unassessed | Minor digestive side effects |
AD, Alzheimer's disease; ADCS-CGIC, Alzheimer's Disease Cooperative Study—Clinical Global Impression of Change; CD, control diet; GI, gastro-intestinal; KB, ketone bodies; KD, ketogenic diet; KS, ketone supplementation; MCI, mild cognitive impairment; N, number; PET, positon emission tomography; QoL, quality of life; RCT, randomized controlled trial.