Table 1.

Carbohydrate–electrolyte beverage composition and ingestion characteristics known to influence gastric emptying (GE)

Factor	Effect
Volume	Direct proportional relationship between beverage volume and GE rate to volumes up to 600 mL, but nil association above [84], and an apparent upper threshold for GE at > 1000 mL [30, 84] High inter-individual variation [92, 93] Repeated solution ingestion to maintain high stomach volumes may aid in maintaining consistent GE rates [30]
Energy content	Glucose and total energy content have a greater inhibitory effect compared with beverage osmolality on GE [94] Inhibitory effect of 4–6% glucose solution (230–352 mOsm kg−1) vs. < 2% glucose and concentrations > 6% (> 350 mOsm kg−1) decrease GE rates [94] 8% glucose solution is emptied at a significantly slower rate when compared to 8% sucrose solution [94]
Carbohydrate type	Galactose empties faster than glucose and fructose empties faster than galactose [95] Starch empties at a similar rate to isocaloric glucose and maltodextrin and fructose empty faster than glucose [96, 97] Glucose and fructose at < 6% concentration are emptied faster than glucose, but glucose and fructose > 6% concentration are not different [98]
Osmolality	Type of carbohydrate affects osmolality and GE rates [31] Sucrose is less inhibitory than glucose at beverage osmolality 68–251 mOsm kg−1 [31] A glucose polymer will reduce the osmolality of the beverage and increase GE rate [99] Hyperosmolality reduces GE rates [99]
pH	Type and concentration of acids commonly used in beverages are not thought to influence GE. Stomach is acidic; beverage pH has minimal effect [29]
Temperature	Beverage temperature may affect GE, but effects are minor in size [29]
Sex	Females may have an initial faster GE rate than males due to smaller stomach generating higher intragastric pressure after the ingestion of large meals or beverage volumes [100]