Figure 19.

A simplified view of activation and functional polarization of macrophages in response to MBG nanoparticles. A) Figure summarizes selected features of macrophages polarized toward the proinflammatory M1 or anti‐inflammatory/prohealing M2 phenotype. Depending on different microenvironmental cues, uncommitted (M0) macrophages undergo either classical (e.g., IFN‐γ + LPS or TNF) or alternative (e.g., IL‐4/IL‐13) activation, acquiring distinct phenotypic and functional properties. Cytokine release profile of M1‐polarized cells includes IL‐6, IL‐12, IL‐23, TNF‐α, IL‐1β, as well as NO and ROI. Cytokine release profile of M2‐polarized cells includes IL‐4, IL‐10, IL‐13, IL‐1ra. Induction and activation of M1 cells lead to inflammation and tissue damage, while M2‐polarized cells promote tissue repair and regeneration. B) Phagocytosis of MBG‐75S nanomaterials does not induce macrophage polarization toward the proinflammatory M1 phenotype. C) In vivo phagocytosis of Cu‐MBG nanoparticles by monocyte/macrophages leads to their activation and polarization into the anti‐inflammatory CD163⁺ M2 phenotype. IFN‐γ: interferon‐gamma; LPS: lipopolysaccharide; TNF‐α: tumor necrosis factor‐alpha; TLR: toll‐like receptor; TGF‐β: transforming growth factor‐beta; NO: nitric oxide; ROI: reactive oxygen intermediate.