Table 3.

Partial and total leukonychia

True leukonychia
Hereditary	Isolated hereditary leukonychia [114–120]
	Hereditary syndromes: acrokeratosis verruciformis of Hopf [121], Alagille syndrome [122], Bart–Pumphrey syndrome [123–128], Carvajal/Naxos syndrome [129], congenital fibrosis of the extraocular muscles type 1 [130], FLOTCH syndrome [131–136], hereditary leukonychia totalis, acanthosis-nigricans-like lesions, and hair dysplasia [137], keratoderma-hypotrichosis-leukonychia totalis syndrome [138], keratosis follicularis spinulosa decalvans [139], leukonychia totalis-keratosis pilaris hyperhidrosis [140], linear atrophoderma of Moulin [141], Lowry–Wood syndrome [142], non-mutilating palmoplantar and periorificial keratoderma resembling Olmsted syndrome [143], palmoplantar keratoderma with deafness [144, 145], PLACK syndrome [146–148], POEMS syndrome [149], sebaceous cysts and renal calculi [150]
Neurovascular disorder	Reflex sympathetic dystrophy [21, 151], conduction block in the ulnar nerve in multifocal motor neuropathy [152], peripheral neuropathy
Systemic diseases	Anemia [18], ischemic cardiomyopathy [153], kidney recipients taking immunosuppressives [28, 84], hepatitis C [154], Wilson’s disease [155] Selenium deficiency: in Crohn’s disease [156], in Hirschsprung disease [157]
Occupation	Wet work [158], automobile industry workers [159]
Trauma	[18]
Deficiency	Selenium [157, 156]
Drugs	Hydroxyurea [160], trazodone [161]
Idiopathic	Congenital or acquired: in boys or men [2, 6, 86, 162–172], congenital or acquired female case [113], with koilonychia [173, 174]
Apparent leukonychia
Neurovascular disorders	Lepra [175]
Skin disease	Lymphoedema [9], Sézary syndrome [176]
Systemic disease	Anemia [177]
Physical	Total skin electron beam irradiation therapy [178]
Drugs	Vorinostat [179]
Terry’s nails	Hepatic cirrhosis (up to 80%) [180–182], acute viral hepatitis [182], autoimmune hepatitis [183], diabetes mellitus [181], erythromelalgia [184], heart failure [181, 185], hematologic disease [186], human immunodeficiency virus [187], hyperthyroid, idiopathic in the elderly [181, 188], Kawasaki disease [189], lepra [175, 190], malnutrition, metastatic carcinoma [181], POEMS syndrome [191], pulmonary tuberculosis, Reiter’s syndrome [192], renal failure [185, 193], tuberculoid leprosy [190], vitiligo [194]
Deficiency	Selenium [157, 195]
Half-and-half nails	Renal failure with or without hemodialysis [76], Behçet disease [196], cirrhosis (idiopathic) [197], Crohn’s disease [198], human immunodeficiency virus [187], hyperthyroid disease, isoniazid [199], Kawasaki disease, pellagra [44, 199–201]
Pseudoleukonychia
Skin disease	Granulation [202], superficial white onychomycosis [203]