Table 1.
Examples of the theranostic use of nanomaterials in CVD.
| Target | Nanoparticle | Imaging modality | Therapeutic | Result | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| αvβ3 integrin | paramagnetic | MRI | Fumagillin | Anti-angiogenic effect in aortic adventitia of atherosclerotic rabbits that could be monitored by MRI | [84,85] |
| FN-EDB | APTFN-EDB-[Gd]NP | MRI | Model drug only | NP bound to both isolated human atherosclerotic vessels and mouse vessels in vivo. NP carried model drug showed superior plaque accumulation versus free drug | [86] |
| Macrophage scavenger receptors | Lipid-latex hybrid (LiLa) | MRI, fluorescence | Rosiglitazone | Uptake by M1 macrophages allows MRI imaging and drug delivery upon intracellular NP degradation | [87] |
| Platelets | Iron oxide containing solid lipid NP | MRI | PGI2 | Reduction of platelet aggregation in human blood samples | [88] |
| Infarcted heart | 18F-rhodamine 6G and iron oxide NP labelled mitochondria | MRI, PET | Mitochondria | Following intracoronary perfusion of mitochondria entered into infarcted rabbit heart as shown by PET/MRI imaging and reduced infarct size and improved cardiac function | [90] |
| Cardiomyocytes and stem cells | Iron oxide-based NP (MagBICE) | MRI | Stem cells | Dual-targeted NP, either with or without magnetic targeting enriched stem cells into heart and reduced cardiac damage following MI | [91] |
| Macrophage scavenger receptors | HDL-MNS | MRI | HDL | 5 times increase in T2-weighted MRI contrast compared with Feromoxytol and increase in macrophage cholesterol efflux | [93] |
| Macrophage scavenger receptors | PLGA-HDL | NIRF | HDL | Accumulation in atherosclerotic aorta and enhanced cholesterol efflux from macrophages | [94] |
| Thrombin | PFCs | MRI | PPACK | Inhibition of thrombosis at sites of acute thrombotic injury due to binding/uptake | [64] |
| Passive accumulation via EPR | L-PLP | MRI, 18F-FDG-PET/CT | Prednisolone phosphate (PLP) | NP entered atherosclerotic lesions with PLP inducing localised anti-angiogenic and anti-inflammatory effects as measured by MRI and PET Uptake of l-PLP confirmed in human patients with atherosclerosis but no change in either angiogenesis or inflammation was observed |
[95] [97] |
| Passive | Hydroxybenzyl alcohol (HBA)-incorporating copolyoxalate (HPOX) Copolymer | NIR fluorescence | H2O2 scavenging, 4-AN | Intrinsic antioxidant effect in a mouse model of I/R injury. NP were formulated with the chemiluminescent sensor rubrene for NIR imaging and 4-AN as model drug | [98] |
| VCAM-1, macrophages and fibrin | Simian virus 40 (SV40) based NP | NIR fluorescence | Hirulog | Effective targeting to atherosclerotic plaques in mice, in vivo NIR imaging and delivery of hirulog, a thrombolytic drug | [99] |
| ROS | Macrophage-targeted theranostic nanoparticles (MacTNP) | NIR fluorescence | Photodynamic therapy | Accumulate inside macrophages in vitro and induce cell death via light exposure | [101] |
| Dectin-1 | Glu/Ce6 nanocomplexes | NIR fluorescence | Photodynamic therapy | Accumulate inside macrophages in vitro and induce cell death via light exposure | [102] |
| Scavenger receptor-A (SR-A) | Ce6/DS-DOCA nanoagents | NIR fluorescence | Photodynamic therapy | Accumulate inside macrophages in vitro and induce cell death via light exposure | [103] |
| Passive (phagocytosis) | Gold nanorods | CT | Photothermal toxicity | Taken up by macrophages at sites of vascular injury. Following application of NIR light, macrophages were killed via photothermal toxicity | [104] |
| Passive | Silica-gold nanorods | Intravascular photoacoustic/ultrasound | Photothermal toxicity | Simultaneous induction and monitoring of photothermal excitation in isolated human coronary artery | [106] |
| Passive | Gold nanostars | SERS | Mitoxantrone | Gold nanostars show preferential accumulation in the heart following intravenous injection in mice, which can be visualised by SERS | [108] |