Table 3.

Spatial error model (SEM) estimates of COVID-19 vaccination levels in the population age 15 and older of ZIP Codes across eight large US cities, March and April 2021

	(1)	(2)	(3)
	% vaccinated, March	% vaccinated, April	Difference
Vaccination priority populations
% 65 +	0.593***	0.470***	− 0.122*
	(0.048)	(0.075)	(0.054)
% health care workers	0.147	− 0.063	− 0.201***
	(0.257)	(0.309)	(0.055)
Socioeconomic composition
% under poverty line	− 0.102*	− 0.138**	− 0.039
	(0.051)	(0.051)	(0.023)
% w/ Medicaid, etc	− 0.102***	− 0.127**	− 0.021
	(0.024)	(0.046)	(0.029)
% w/o health insurance	− 0.418***	− 0.655***	− 0.234***
	(0.039)	(0.053)	(0.023)
% w/o internet access	− 0.040	− 0.036	0.003
	(0.051)	(0.060)	(0.011)
Racial/ethnic composition
% Black	− 0.111	− 0.132	− 0.021
	(0.061)	(0.084)	(0.025)
% Hispanic	0.041	0.076	0.036***
	(0.035)	(0.041)	(0.010)
% Asian	0.101	0.230*	0.127***
	(0.067)	(0.103)	(0.037)
Residual Moran’s$I$
Standard linear model (SLM)	0.250***	0.222***	0.202***
Spatial error model (SEM)	0.027	0.014	− 0.015

SEMs estimated by maximum likelihood with row-standardized nearest-neighbor spatial weighting ($k=8$).$N=552$ZIP Codes across eight of the 10 most populous US cities. City fixed effects (reference: New York) and constant terms not shown. Percentages scaled from zero to one. All models weighted by estimated population age 15 and older. Heteroskedasticity-robust standard errors clustered by state in parentheses. ***$p<0.001$; **$p<0.01$; *$p<0.05$. Moran’s$I$$p$-values calculated by permutation bootstrap (9999 iterations). “Health care workers” refers to individuals employed in health care and social assistance. “Medicaid, etc.” refers to Medicaid or any other means-tested public health insurance. The “% vaccinated” is the percent of the population age 15 and older with at least one dose of a COVID-19 vaccine.