Fig 3. Estimated associations^a between AQ improvement^b and cognitive ability decline^c, stratified by population characteristics.

The bars and whisker represent the regression coefficient beta and corresponding 95% CIs. ^aAssociation was represented by beta, the regression coefficient estimating the increase in TICSm score per year for each IQR increase of AQ improvement (IQR_PM2.5 = 1.79 μg/m³; IQR_NO2 = 3.92 ppb), adjusting for spatial random effect, WHIMS-ECHO enrollment year, age, follow-up year, age interaction with follow-up year, time-varying propensity scores, demographic variables (geographic region and race/ethnicity), socioeconomic factors (education, income, and employment status) and neighborhood characteristics, lifestyle factors (smoking, drinking, and physical activities), prior hormone use, hormone therapy assignment, cardiovascular risk factors (hypertension, diabetes, and hypercholesterolemia), depression, BMI, and CVD histories. ^bRecent exposures were the 3-year average exposures estimated at the WHIMS-ECHO enrollment. Remote exposures were the 3-year average exposures estimated 10 years before the WHIMS-ECHO enrollment. AQ improvement was defined by reduction from remote to recent exposures over the 10-year period. ^cp-Value was calculated using Wald t test for the interaction between AQ improvement and each subgroup unadjusted for multiple comparison. After controlling for multiple comparison using Benjamini–Hochberg approach, false discovery rate corrected p-values > 0.05 for all interaction tests. ApoE, Apolipoprotein E; AQ, air quality; BMI, body mass index; CVD, cardiovascular disease; GED, general educational development; IQR, interquartile range; NO₂, nitrogen dioxide; PM_2.5, fine particulate matter; ppb, parts per billion; TICSm, modified Telephone Interview for Cognitive Status; WHIMS-ECHO, Women’s Health Initiative Memory Study-Epidemiology of Cognitive Health Outcomes.