Table 1.

Postmortem and in vivo evidence of inflammation in PD

Type of inflammation	Markers for inflammation	Sources	Regions	PD vs. healthy control
Microglia	Iba1	Postmortem brain	SN	Increase [25]
			SN, HIP, ERC, PFC, OTC, PPC, Mesencephalon	No difference [25], [26], [41]
	HLA-DR		Amygdala	Increase [26]
			SN	No difference [26]
	CR3/43		SN	Increase [23]
			Putamen	No difference [23]
	CD68		SN, HIP	Increase [25]
	TMEM119		Putamen	Increase [43]
	11C-PK11195	PET imaging	Temporal cortex, occipital cortex, SN, putamen	Increase [33]- [35]
			Putamen, caudate nucleus	No difference [35]
	11C-DPA713		Temporal cortex, occipital cortex, parietal cortex	Increase [38]
	18F-FEPPA		Thalamus, caudate, putamen, HIP	Increase [37]
	18F-DPA714		Midbrain, frontal cortex, putamen	Increase [38]
Astrocyte	GFAP	Postmortem brain	SN	Increase [26]
			Amygdala, HIP, ERC, PFC, OTC, PPC, Mesencephalon	No difference [41], [83]
	GLAST		Mesencephalon	No difference [41]
	Metallothioneins I and II		SN, putamen	No difference [23]
	MHC-II		SN, putamen, HIP, transentorhinal cortex, cingulate cortex, temporal cortex, lymphatic system, mesencephalon	Increase [24], [41]
	11C-BU9908	PET imaging	Cortex, brain stem	Increase [39]
Lymphocyte	CD4+	Postmortem brain	SN, amygdala	Increase [26], [41], [45]
		Blood	PBMC	Increase [42]
			Peripheral blood lymphocytes	Lower [48]
	CD8+	Postmortem brain	SN	Increase [44]
			SN, perivascular, amygdala	No difference [26], [44], [45]
		Blood	PBMC	No difference [42]
	CD45	Postmortem brain	Putamen	Increase [43]
B cells	CD79α+	Postmortem brain	SN	No difference [45]
	CD20+
NK cells	CD57+	Postmortem brain	SN	No difference [45]
	CD56+	Blood	PBMC	Increase [47], [48], [50]
Monocytes	CD14+	Blood	Peripheral blood	Increase [46]
	CD16+		Peripheral blood	No difference [51]
	CD14+/CD16-	CSF	CSF	Lower [51]
	CD14+/CD16+		CSF	Increase [51]
Inflammasome	NLRP3	Blood	PBMC, plasma	Increase [54], [56]
			PBMC	No difference [61]
	NLRP1		PBMC	No difference [54]
	NLRP4
Cytokines	IL-1β	Postmortem brain	SN, frontal cortex	Increase [26]
		Blood	Plasma, serum	Increase [103]
	IFNγ	Blood	PBMC	No difference [42]
			Serum	Lower [55]
	TNFα	Postmortem brain	SN, HIP, amygdala, frontal cortex	No difference [26]
		Blood	Serum	Lower [55]
			Plasma	Increase [58]
	IL-2	Postmortem brain	Frontal cortex	Increase [57]
	IL-13		Frontal cortex	Lower [57]
	IL-10	Blood	PBMC, plasma	Increase [42], [58]
	IL-5		PBMC	No difference [42]
	IL-6	Blood	Plasma	Increase [58]

PD, Parkinson’s disease; SN, substantia nigra; HIP, hippocampus; ERC, entorhinal cortex; PFC, prefrontal cortex; OTC, occipito-temporal cortex; PPC, posterior pariental cortex; HLA-DR, human leukocyte antigen DR isotype; PET, positron emission tomography; GFAP, glial fibrillary acidic protein; GLAST, glutamate aspartate transporter; MHC-II, major histocompatibility complex class II; PBMC, peripheral blood mononuclear cell; NK cells, natural killer cells; CSF, cerebrospinal fluid.