Figure 2.

The biological function and therapeutic potential of apoptotic bodies. A) Apoptotic bodies are secreted by budding directly through the cell membrane. Apoptosis leads to an increase in the influx of calcium ions (Ca²⁺), which triggers proteases, and these activated proteases mediate the destruction of the cytoskeleton. ADP-ribosylation factor-6 (ARF-6) initiates the signal cascade, and finally activates the rho-related protein kinase (ROCK) signaling pathway to trigger blistering, and finally release of apoptotic bodies. The initiation of apoptosis also activates apoptotic enzymes to mediate the shedding of apoptotic bodies. B) Chemotherapy or radiotherapy-exposed tumor cells may initiate apoptosis and trigger the release ABs. Adapted with permission from ²³. Copyright Year 2018, frontiers in Immunology. C) Strategies for treatment with apoptotic bodies. Adapted with permission from ²⁴. Copyright Year 2020, PORTLAND PRESS. D) Signal pathways affecting tumor cell apoptosis. Adapted with permission from ²⁵. Copyright Year 2020, Springer Nature.