Fig. 1.

Experimental design of a systematic study of migratory beekeeping effects on pathogen loads. After developing either in a migratory or stationary hive, adults were marked upon emergence and either reintroduced into their native hive or transferred to a corresponding hive of the opposite treatment, creating four principal experimental groups: “SS” = stationary juvenile and adult environment, “MS” = migratory juvenile and stationary adult environment, ‘SM’ stationary juvenile and migratory adult environment, and “MM” = migratory juvenile and adult environment. After 14 and 28 d, respectively, hive bees and foragers were individually identified and sampled from each of the four treatment groups. This protocol was performed at the beginning and the end of the active season, resulting in 32 (2 seasons × 2 juvenile treatments × 2 adult treatments × 2 ages × 2 behavioral states) groups. For each group, five individuals were pooled into one hive replicate, resulting in 160 samples representing 800 bees.