Table 1.
Demographic, Anthropometric, and Immune-Metabolic Markers in Patients With or Without Metabolic-Associated Fatty Liver Disease (MAFLD)a
| Total | No MAFLD | MAFLD | P | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| (N = 235) | (N = 105, 44.7%) | (N = 130, 55.3%) | ||
| Demographic and Anthropometric Characteristics | ||||
| Male sex, N (%) | 162 (68.9%) | 67 (63.8%) | 95 (73.1%) | .17 |
| Age, years, median (Q1, Q3) [No.] | 61.0 (52.0–72.5) [235] | 63.0 (52.0–74.0) [105] | 60.0 (52.0–70.0) [130] | .17 |
| Waist circumference, cm, median (Q1, Q3) [No.] | 103.0 (96.0–111.0) [216] | 97.0 (90.0–104.0) [93] | 106.0 (101.0–114.0) [123] | <.001 |
| BMI, kg/m2, median (Q1, Q3) [No.] | 29.0 (26.1–31.9) [227] | 26.8 (24.3–29.4) [100] | 30.7 (28.2–33.5) [127] | <.001 |
| BMI on admission, kg/m2, median (Q1, Q3) [No.] | 29.4 (26.0–32.4) [224] | 26.5 (23.7–30.9) [97] | 30.5 (28.4–34.4) [127] | <.001 |
| BMI at discharge, kg/m2, median (Q1, Q3) [No.] | 27.1 (23.7–30.1) [224] | 24.5 (21.7–27.5) [97] | 28.3 (26.4–31.7) [127] | <.001 |
| Physical activity (moderate/intense), N (%) | 41 (17.5%) | 20 (19.1%) | 21 (16.2%) | .31 |
| Daily calories intake, calories, median (Q1, Q3) [No.] | 1800.0 (1631.3–2000.0) [122] | 1720.0 (1550.0–2000.0) [49] | 1860.0 (1670.0–2000.0) [73] | .02 |
| Involuntary weight loss during prior year, N (%) | 115 (48.9%) | 44 (41.9%) | 71 (54.6%) | .32 |
| Weight change T1-T0, kg, median (Q1, Q3) [No.] | −6.0 (−10.0 to −3.0) [220] | −5.25 (−10.0 to −3.0) [96] | −6.0 (−10.0 to −3.0) [124] | .74 |
| Weight change T2-T1, kg, median (Q1, Q3) [No.] | 5.0 (2.0–7.0) [219] | 5.0 (2.0–8.0) [95] | 4.75 (2.0–7.0) [124] | .69 |
| Hospitalization Data | ||||
| Invasive or noninvasive mechanical ventilation, N (%) | 45 (19.2%) | 21 (20.0%) | 24 (18.5%) | .90 |
| C-reactive protein on admission, mg/dL, median (Q1, Q3) [No.] | 7.1 (3.2–14.4) [232] | 7.2 (3.3–14.2) [104] | 6.9 (3.1–15.2) [128] | .69 |
| C-reactive protein peak during hospitalization, mg/dL, median (Q1, Q3) [No.] | 8.9 (4.3–17.3) [232] | 8.2 (4.6–16.7) [104] | 9.2 (4.2–17.4) [128] | .98 |
| Interleukin-6 on admission, ng/mL, median, (Q1, Q3) [No.] | 126.9 (46.1–334.6) [147] | 165.1 (64.7–354.1) [63] | 111.0 (29.2–298.7) [84] | .79 |
| Use of glucocorticoids, N (%) | 84 (35.7%) | 31 (29.5%) | 53 (40.8%) | .10 |
| Use of tocilizumab, N (%) | 109 (46.4%) | 47 (44.8%) | 62 (47.7%) | .75 |
| Time between symptom initiation and MPC visit, days, median (Q1, Q3) [No.] | 144.0 (130.0–167.5) [223] | 143.5 (131.8–161.3) [100] | 145.0 (129.5–168.0) [123] | .19 |
| Duration of hospitalization, days, mean (SD) [No.] | 11.8 (10.3) [235] | 11.5 (10.2) [105] | 12.1 (10.3) [130] | .61 |
| Hematological and Metabolic Biomarkers at Follow-up Visit | ||||
| Glucose, mg/dL, median (Q1, Q3) [No.] | 94.0 (85.0–106.0) [211] | 93.0 (85.0–101.0) [93] | 98.0 (85.25–120.0) [118] | .002 |
| AST, U/L, median (Q1, Q3) [No.] | 36.0 (27.0–53.0) [149] | 35.0 (27.0–48.0) [57] | 37 (26.8–55.0) [92] | .71 |
| ALT, U/L, median (Q1, Q3) [No.] | 31.0 (21.0–48.0) [234] | 23.0 (19.0–25.0) [105] | 36.0 (23.5–49.5) [129] | .001 |
| Platelets, ×109/L, median (Q1, Q3) [No.] | 214.5 (169.0–272.0) [232] | 199.0 (162.3–258.5) [104] | 230.0 (173.5–286.25) [128] | 0.02 |
| HOMA index, median (Q1, Q3) [No.] | 2.2 (1.4–3.8) [195] | 1.5 (1.2–2.2) [88] | 3.1 (2.0–4.8) [107] | <.001 |
| Total cholesterol, mg/dL, median (Q1, Q3) [No.] | 198.0 (168.0–229.0) [207] | 195.0 (166.5–220.0) [91] | 201.0 (169.8–238.0) [116] | <.001 |
| LDL cholesterol, mg/dL, median (Q1, Q3) [No.] | 129.0 (102.0–153.5) [207] | 122.0 (98.5–147.0) [91] | 132.0 (104.0–164.3) [116] | .03 |
| HDL cholesterol, mg/dL, median (Q1, Q3) [No.] | 52.0 (45.0–60.5) [207] | 53.0 (46.0–60.5) [91] | 51.0 (45.0–60.3) [116] | .45 |
| Total cholesterol to HDL cholesterol ratio, median (Q1, Q3) [No.] | 3.8 (3.0–4.4) [207] | 3.6 (2.9–4.2) [91] | 4.0 (3.1–4.7) [116] | .02 |
| Triglycerides, mg/dL, median (Q1, Q3) [No.] | 115.0 (88.0–160.0) [207] | 103.0 (84.0–135.0) [91] | 127.0 (98.75–185.5) [116] | <.001 |
| ASCVD at follow-up visit, median (Q1, Q3) [No.] | 10.4 (5.1–21.3) [131] | 11.6 (4.5–20.7) [48] | 8.76 (5.7–21.7) [83] | .58 |
| Use of statins, N (%) | 46 (19.6%) | 15 (14.3%) | 31 (23.9%) | .09 |
| Immune-Metabolic Diseases | ||||
| Diabetes mellitus, N (%) | 33 (14.0%) | 7 (6.7%) | 26 (20.0%) | .006 |
| Hypertension, N (%) | 70 (29.8%) | 27 (25.7%) | 43 (33.1%) | .80 |
| Metabolic syndrome, N (%) | 65 (27.7%) | 14 (13.3%) | 51 (39.2%) | <.001 |
| Insulin resistance, N (%) | 85 (36.2%) | 25 (9.4%) | 60 (70.6%) | <.001 |
| PACS | ||||
| Number of reported PACS symptoms, median (Q1, Q3) [No.] | 2.0 (1.0–5.0) [234] | 3.0 (1.0–5.0) [105] | 2.0 (1.0–4.0) [129] | .03 |
| PACS, N (%) | 182 (77.5%) | 83 (79.1%) | 99 (76.2%) | .71 |
| Respiratory cluster, N (%) | 125 (53.2%) | 58 (55.2%) | 67 (51.5%) | .66 |
| Musculoskeletal cluster, N (%) | 62 (26.4%) | 30 (28.6%) | 32 (24.6%) | .59 |
| Neurocognitive cluster, N (%) | 82(34.9%) | 44 (41.9%) | 38 (29.2%) | .06 |
| Psychological cluster, N (%) | 69 (29.4%) | 39 (37.1%) | 30 (23.1%) | .03 |
| Sensory cluster, N (%) | 41 (17.5%) | 21 (20.0%) | 20 (15.4%) | .45 |
| Dermatological cluster, N (%) | 59 (25.1%) | 27 (25.7%) | 32 (24.6%) | .97 |
Abbreviations: ALT, alanine aminotransferase; ASCVD, atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease risk algorithm from American Heart Association/American College of Cardiology; AST, aspartate aminotransferase; BMI, body mass index; HDL, high-density lipoprotein; HOMA, homeostatic model assessment for insulin resistance; LDL, low-density lipoprotein; MAFLD, metabolic-associated fatty liver disease; MPC, Modena PACS Clinic; [No.], number of people in whom the given variable was available; PACS, postacute COVID-19 syndrome; Q1, Q3, lower and upper quartile; SD, standard deviation.
Physical activity was assessed with the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ).