Table 1.

Problems of between-person methods (rows) and within-person methods that may help to solve them (columns). Numbers 1.1 – 2.6 refer to the matching numbered sections in this article.

Within-person methods described above	2.1. Within-person profiles and scatter plots1	2.2. Between-person distributions of within-person correlations2	2.3. Multilevel corre-lation or regression; situations nested in individuals3	2.4. Network analysis show-ing within-person co-endorsements4	2.5. Combinations of person-specific/within-person and between-person co-variance-based networks5	2.6. Analyses of within-person trajectories (e.g., within-person slopes & intercepts)6
Limitations of between-person methods described above
1.1. Understanding change requires analyzing within-person trajectories. Between-person methods may misin-terpret trajectories7	If scatter plots show repeated measures separately for distinct individuals.				If networks examine mo-ment-to-moment autoregres-sive paths within persons	Problem 1.1 can be solved by solution 2.6
1.2. Processes and structures of psychological constructs often differ in within-person versus between-person analyses (lack of ergodicity)8	If scatter plots show repeated measures separately for distinct individuals.	Problem 1.2 can be solved by solution 2.2	Problem 1.2 can be solved by solution 2.3	If only single edges are interpreted or if idiographic and nomothetic networks are distinguished	Problem 1.2 can be solved by solution 2.5	If between-person differ-ences in regard to within-person trajectories are addressed.
1.3. Heterogeneity & unexpected pat-terns hiding behind a between-person coefficient9	Problem 1.3 can be solved by solution 2.1	Does reveal differences between individuals but does not solve the problems described by Anscombe (1973)	Does reveal differ-ences between indi-viduals but does not solve the problems described by Anscombe (1973)	Partially, can be used to distinguish covariance from co-endorsement, but does not represent entire bivariate distribution	Does reveal differences be-tween individuals but does not solve the problems de-scribed by Anscombe (1973)	Does reveal differences between individuals but does not solve the problems described by Anscombe (1973)
1.4. Co-variance mixed up with co-endorsement10	Problem 1.4 can be solved by solution 2.1			Problem 1.4 can be solved by solution 2.4
1.5. Different people ‘walking’ different paths in path models11	Only profile analysis, not scatter plots			Adaptation needed to dis-tinguish idiographic and nomothetic networks	Solved only in idiographic networks	If all trajectories in the model were examined withinsame person.

Note. ^a = Moeller et al., 2018b; ² = Pekrun et al., 2002; Moeller et al., 2015; ³ = Brose et al., 2020; Dietrich et al., 2017; Völkle et al., 2014; ⁴ = Moeller et al., 2018a; ⁵ = e.g., Beck & Jackson, 2020; Gates & Molenaar, 2012; Beltz et al., 2016; Wright et al., 2019; ⁶ = Moeller et al., in press; ⁷ = e.g., Reitzle & Dietrich, 2019; ⁸ = e.g., Molenaar, 2004; Yarnold, 2013; Kievit et al., 2013; Kievit et al., 2011; Vansteenlandt et al., 2015; Völkle et al., 2014; ⁹ = discussed by Anscombe, 1973; Matejka, & Fitzmaurice, 2017; Asendorpf, 1993; 2000; ¹⁰ = discussed in Moeller et al., 2018a; ¹¹ = discussed in Reitzle, 2013. In the cells, complete solutions to problems are marked bold, partial solutions are marked in italics.