Table 1.
Prevalence of mental health impacts across each of the domains and scales studied.
| Scale | No. Studies | Sample size | Proportion | 95% CI | z Score | p | I 2 (%) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Depression | 160 | 210,762 | 0.33 | 0.28–0.38 | 13.36 | 0.00 | 99.95 |
| PHQ9 | 74 | 115,185 | 0.33 | 0.28–0.38 | 11.98 | 0.00 | 99.85 |
| SDS | 12 | 26,207 | 0.38 | 0.10–0.65 | 2.69 | 0.01 | 99.97 |
| HADS | 23 | 12,984 | 0.34 | 0.27–0.42 | 9.40 | 0.00 | 98.85 |
| BDI | 5 | 2,325 | 0.35 | 0.22–0.47 | 5.40 | 0.00 | 96.54 |
| CES-D | 3 | 16,118 | 0.30 | 0.24–0.36 | 9.78 | 0.00 | n.a. |
| DASS-21 | 36 | 23,497 | 0.33 | 0.24–0.42 | 7.42 | 0.00 | 99.87 |
| PHQ2/PHQ4 | 4 | 4,005 | 0.25 | 0.19–0.30 | 8.78 | 0.00 | 91.56 |
| Anxiety | 179 | 206,513 | 0.42 | 0.35–0.48 | 12.35 | 0.00 | 99.94 |
| GAD-7 | 87 | 123,895 | 0.42 | 0.35–0.48 | 12.72 | 0.00 | 99.87 |
| DASS-21 | 32 | 22,698 | 0.37 | 0.29–0.44 | 9.59 | 0.00 | 99.22 |
| HADS | 22 | 14,515 | 0.44 | 0.39–0.50 | 15.41 | 0.00 | 96.25 |
| SAS | 16 | 32,000 | 0.35 | 0.08–0.62 | 2.52 | 0.00 | 99.98 |
| BAI | 4 | 1,569 | 0.34 | 0.11–0.58 | 2.94 | 0.00 | 98.49 |
| STAI-S | 10 | 5,875 | 0.68 | 0.48–0.88 | 6.68 | 0.00 | 99.77 |
| PHQ-4 | 4 | 4,005 | 0.37 | 0.23–0.51 | 5.20 | 0.00 | 98.52 |
| CAS | 4 | 2,018 | 0.47 | 0.27–0.67 | 4.66 | 0.00 | n.a. |
| Acute stress | 57 | 48,042 | 0.40 | 0.32–0.47 | 10.12 | 0.00 | 99.87 |
| SASRQ | 4 | 12,365 | 0.33 | 0.10–0.55 | 2.83 | 0.00 | 99.73 |
| DASS-21 | 32 | 22,561 | 0.26 | 0.21–0.32 | 9.37 | 0.00 | 99.42 |
| PSS | 21 | 13,116 | 0.62 | 0.50–0.73 | 10.35 | 0.00 | 99.67 |
| Post-trauma | 39 | 58,995 | 0.32 | 0.26–0.37 | 11.01 | 0.00 | 99.69 |
| IES-R | 23 | 24,225 | 0.38 | 0.29–0.47 | 8.33 | 0.00 | 99.70 |
| PCL-C | 12 | 26,057 | 0.20 | 0.12–0.28 | 4.94 | 0.00 | 99.53 |
| PC-PTSD | 4 | 8,713 | 0.32 | 0.21–0.43 | 5.77 | 0.00 | 99.07 |
| Insomnia | 55 | 37,068 | 0.42 | 0.36–0.48 | 12.92 | 0.00 | 99.59 |
| ISI | 27 | 23,366 | 0.39 | 0.30–0.47 | 8.96 | 0.00 | 99.66 |
| SQS | 3 | 920 | 0.28 | 0.02–0.54 | 2.11 | 0.04 | n.a. |
| AIS | 6 | 4,079 | 0.42 | 0.33–0.51 | 9.42 | 0.00 | 96.66 |
| PSQI | 19 | 8,703 | 0.49 | 0.37–0.61 | 8.26 | 0.00 | 99.29 |
| Burnout | 25 | 30,873 | 0.37 | 0.31–0.42 | 12.62 | 0.00 | 99.81 |
| MBI-EE | 19 | 26,776 | 0.39 | 0.30–0.48 | 8.90 | 0.00 | 99.50 |
| MBI-DP | 19 | 26,776 | 0.34 | 0.22–0.46 | 5.59 | 0.00 | 99.77 |
| MBI-RPA | 19 | 26,776 | 0.36 | 0.28–0.45 | 8.54 | 0.00 | 99.38 |
| CBI | 3 | 3,238 | 0.53 | 0.52–0.54 | 59.85 | 0.00 | n.a. |
| Mini-Z | 3 | 859 | 0.22 | 0.14–0.30 | 5.31 | 0.00 | n.a. |
Abbreviations: AIS, Athens Insomnia Scale; BAI, Beck Anxiety Inventory; BDI, Beck Depression Inventory; CAS, Coronavirus Anxiety Scale; CBI, Copenhagen Burnout Inventory; CES-D, Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale; DASS-21, Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale-21; GAD-7, Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7; HADS, Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale; IES-R, Impact of Event Scale—Revised; ISI, Insomnia Severity Index; MBI-DP, Maslach Burnout Inventory—depersonalization; MBI-EE, Maslach Burnout Inventory—emotional exhaustion; MBI-RPA, Maslach Burnout Inventory—reduced personal accomplishment; Mini-Z, Mini-Z Burnout Survey; n.a., not applicable; PC-PTSD, Primary Care—Post Traumatic Stress Disorder Scale; PCL-C, Post Traumatic Stress Disorder Checklist—Civilian Version; PHQ, Patient Health Questionnaire; PSQI, Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index; SAS, Zung Self-Rating Anxiety Scale; SASRQ, Stanford Acute Stress Reaction Questionnaire; SDS, Zung Self-Rating Depression Scale; SQS, Sleep Quality Scale; STAI-S, State-–Trait Anxiety Inventory—State Subscale.