| Firmicutes |
Lactobacillaceae |
Lactobacillus (plantarum, rhamnosus, gasseri, curvatus, sakei, kefir, parakefir) |
↑ after CR, IF, KD, FF.
-
•
Aero-tolerant anaerobe.
-
•
Protective effect on the tight junctions, decreasing gut permeability and inflammation [[406], [407], [408]]. The inflammation decreases also in the hypothalamus, increasing insulin and satiety hormones sensitivity [409,410]. This leads to reduced food intake, increased satiety, and fat accumulation [411,412].
-
•
Production of antimicrobial peptides, able to eliminate pathogenic bacteria,
-
•
Production of linoleic acid, which modulates the FAs composition of liver and adipose tissue (increases lipolysis) and reduces leptin levels [349,413,414].
|
|
Lachnospiraceae |
Roseburia (hominis, intestinalis, inulinivorans, faecis) |
↑ after CR, IF.
-
•
Obligate anaerobes.
-
•
Production of SCFAs, especially butyrate, upon fibres consumption. Butyrate is the main energy source for colonic cells and inhibits the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines by blocking NF-kB and by activating pro-inflammatory T-cells [415,416]. This has a protective effect on the intestinal epithelium. In addition, butyrate is an important regulator of thermogenesis, lipid and glucose metabolism and appetite [417].
|
|
Ruminococcaceae |
Faecalibacterium (prausnitzii) |
↑ after CR, IF.
-
•
Obligate anaerobe.
-
•
Butyrate-producer (see the benefits of butyrate in Roseburia) [418].
-
•
Production of salicylic acid, which has anti-inflammatory properties (decreases IL8) [419,420].
|
|
Christensenellaceae |
Christensenella (minuta) |
↑ after CR, HFi.
-
•
Obligate anaerobe.
-
•
Linked with low adiposity, lean phenotype, healthy diet consumption, and intestinal health and motility [421,422].
-
•
Moderate production of butyrate and acetic acid.
-
•
Linked with an increase in energy expenditure pathways in the liver and adipose tissue as well as an improved expression of intestinal tight junctions [423].
|
| Bacteroidetes |
Bacteroidaceae |
Bacteroides (uniformis, thetaiotaomicron) |
↑ after CR, IF, HFi, FF.
-
•
Obligate anaerobe.
-
•
Production of SCFAs (acetate, succinate, lactate, and propionate) [424]. I
-
•
Regulation glutamate metabolism in epithelial cells [425] and insulin-dependent routes in the adipose tissue and the liver.
-
•
Improvement immunity function and lipid metabolism [425].
|
| Actinobacteria |
Bifidobacteriaceae |
Bifidobacterium (lactis, animalis, adolescentis, bifidum, infantis, breve, brevis, casei) |
↑ after CR, FF; ↓ KD
-
•
Obligate anaerobe.
-
•
Production of butyrate (see the benefits of butyrate in Roseburia).
-
•
Most abundant genera present in a healthy gut early in life as well as in the intestine of healthy breastfed infants. It plays an important role in gut homeostasis and immune system development [426,427].
-
•
Important immuno-regulatory role in the adults [427].
-
•
It promotes insulin sensitivity, glucose tolerance, liver and adipose tissue functions, mitochondrial biogenesis, and body fat loss [412,428,429].
|
| Verrucomicrobia |
Akkermansiaceae |
Akkermansia (muciniphila) |
↑ after CR, IF, KD, BS, HFi, FF.
-
•
Strict anaerobe.
-
•
Utilization of mucin as the sole source of carbon and nitrogen elements.
-
•
Its abundance is inversely proportional to the body weight in mice and humans. It is associated with an improvement of intestinal health (gut permeability, tight junctions), immune system function, glucose tolerance, adipose tissue metabolism, and insulin sensitivity [430,431].
-
•
Linked with an increased level of satiety hormones (GPL-1 and PYY), suppression of appetite, increased energy expenditure, and decreased adipocytes size [432].
-
•
Its inactivation (pasteurization) enhances more, even the beneficial effects [433].
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