TABLE 1.

Characteristics of cross-sectional and longitudinal studies analyzing the effect of parenting styles on youth presentation of disordered eating.

References	Study design	Country of origin	Sample characteristics	Parenting style measure	Parents assessed	Disordered eating measure	Relevant findings	Quality appraisal
Berge et al., 2014	Cross-sectional	United States	N = 2,793 (1,307 females) M = 14.4 years; S.D. = 2.0; range = 11–19	Family assessment device	Mother and father	Eating and activity in teens (EAT-26)	Youths reporting greater parental psychological control were more likely to engage in dieting and DEB behaviors. Psychologically controlling mothers were most associated with more DEB in males (extreme WCB) and all DEB in females (dieting, binge eating, unhealthy, and extreme WCB). For females, those with experience of higher perceived paternal psychological control were more likely to engage in all DE behaviors.	Moderate
Blodgett Salafia et al., 2009	Longitudinal attrition N/A	United States	N = 131 (73 females) M = 11.65 years; S.D. = 0.51; range = 11–13 years	Psychological control scale-youth self-report	Mother	Eating Disorder Inventory (EDI-1)	For both male and female participants, reported maternal psychological control predicted bulimic symptoms 2 years later. However, this association was indirect and mediated by adolescents’ lowered self-competence.	Weak
Blodgett Salafia et al., 2007	Longitudinal attrition N/A	United States	N = 73 (73 female) M = 11.59 years; S.D. = 0.52; range = 11–13 years	Psychological control scale youth report democracy scale parental knowledge scale	Mother	Eating Disorder Inventory (EDI-1)	The mother-youth relationship was important. Girls reporting their mothers’ undemocratic parenting style, restriction of psychological autonomy, and less knowledge of daily activities and social interactions were more likely to engage in DEB (dieting) and attitudes (drive for thinness and body dissatisfaction) 2 years later. However, this relationship was indirect, and fully mediated by internalized psychological distress.	Moderate
Fonseca et al., 2002	Cross-sectional	Portugal	N = 9,042 (4,625 female) Range = 12–18 years	Voice of Connecticut youth	Converged	Voice of Connecticut youth	Parenting style risk factors for engaging in DEB (extreme dieting) among males were reports of high parental supervision and monitoring. In contrast, there were no significant parenting risk factors associated with females.	Weak
Furnham and Adam-Saib, 2000	Cross-sectional	United Kingdom	N = 168 (168 female) Range = 15–17 years	Parental bonding instrument	Mother and father	Eating attitudes test (EAT-26)	Many findings were non-significant. Parental overprotection scores were not significantly associated with EAT scores across any groups. However, both maternal and paternal responsiveness negatively correlated with body satisfaction. Further, socio-cultural factors influenced the development of DE symptoms, with the British-Asian sample reporting higher EAT scores and parental overprotectiveness compared to white participants.	Weak
Hautala et al., 2011	Longitudinal T0 N = N/A T1 N = 1,891 T2 N = 935	Finland	N = 722 (535 female) M = 14.9 years. Divided into reported eating disturbance (n = 208), and non-symptomatic controls (n = 514)	Parental Bonding Instrument	Mother and father	SCOFF (Finnish translation)	Due to attrition, analyses were conducted on females. Parenting styles were associated with both onset of and remission from DE. Paternal overprotection alone was significantly associated with onset of DE; maternal parenting style was not. However, only maternal care uniquely predicted the recurrence of DE in adolescents. Further, prolonged DE symptoms were associated less caring and more controlling parenting styles. In terms of remission, “good enough” parenting was sufficient to remit female participants from symptoms.	Moderate
Hochgraf et al., 2017	Cross-sectional	United States	N = 699 (351 female) Range = 11–12 years	Parental Warmth report	Mother and father	Child’s eating habits and body self-image scale	Both maternal and paternal hostility were independently associated with youth DE. Further, an additive effect was observed as associations between youth DE and parenting styles were amplified when both parents were high in hostility. However, differential implications of parenting styles were observed, as paternal hostility was associated with more severe DE.	Weak
Kerr et al., 2021	Longitudinal T0 N = 4,950 T1 N = 4,950	United States	T0 N = 4,950 (2,370 female) Range = 9–10 years	Children’s report of parent behavior inventory	Mother and father	Kiddie schedule for affective disorders and Schizophrenia	Effects of parenting styles differed between parents and offspring gender. Offspring perceptions of a lack of maternal acceptance was associated with heightened risk of DE a year later in females, but not males. However, this was an interaction effect as maternal acceptance was a mediator for the relationship between gastric symptoms and DE. In contrast, there were no statistically significant effects for paternal acceptance.	Moderate
Korotana et al., 2018	Longitudinal T0 N = 446 T1 N = 383 T2 N = 352	Canada	T0 N = 446 (466 female) Range = 11–17 years	Parental environmental questionnaire	Mother and father	Minnesota eating behavior survey	Longitudinal associations between daughter DE and the parent-child relationship were limited. However, reciprocal associations were found between adverse parenting styles and daughter DE (body dissatisfaction, weight preoccupation, binge eating, compensatory behavior) as reporting of DE symptoms were associated with maladaptive changes to parenting styles.	Strong
Krug et al. (2014)	Longitudinal Attrition N/A	Australia	N = 1,391 (684 female) M = 11.59 years; S.D. = 0.52; range = 11–13 years)	N/A	N/A	Eating Disorder Inventory (unspecified)	For female participants, low parental monitoring was significantly associated with bulimia. Further, reports of low parental warmth and monitoring were associated with increased risk of reporting all DE symptoms (body dissatisfaction, drive for thinness, and bulimia) for adolescent females. However, for males, no significant associations were found between any parenting styles and reported DE symptoms.	Moderate
Krug et al., 2016	Longitudinal Attrition N/A	Australia	N = 1,300 (667 female) Range = 15–16 years	ATP parenting practices questionnaire	1 parent (95% mother)	Eating Disorder Inventory (EDI-1) body dissatisfaction scale	There was limited evidence for a direct parental effect on youths’ DE attitudes and behaviors. For males, there were no significant associations between reported parenting styles and any indicator of DEB. For females, low parental warmth alone was associated with bulimic behaviors. Further, exposure to both low parental warmth and monitoring increased females’ odds of reporting all DE outcomes (drive for thinness, bulimia, and body dissatisfaction).	Moderate
McEwen and Flouri, 2009	Cross-sectional	United Kingdom	N = 203 (125 female) M = 14.04 years; S.D. = 1.91; range = 11–18 years	Parental bonding instrument parental control scales	Father	Eating attitudes test (EAT-26)	Paternal overprotection, warmth, psychological control contributed independently to youth DE symptoms. Further, paternal psychological control and overprotection were directly associated with adolescent DE. However, paternal behavioral control (monitoring, knowledge, discipline) was not related to DE symptoms.	Strong
Meesters et al., 2007	Cross-sectional	Netherlands	N = 405 (224 female) M = 12.5; S.D. = 1.5; range = 10–16 years	Egna Minnen Beträffande Uppfrostran, (Swedish “My memories of upbringing”)	Mother and father	Children’s Eating Attitudes Test (ChEAT)	Reported maternal rejection was positively related to food preoccupation and dieting for both male and female participants. However, gender differences were observed as familial influences were more predictive of DE in boys than girls. High levels of both maternal and paternal control associated with dieting, food and muscle preoccupation in males. Further, maternal control significantly predicted muscle preoccupation in males.	Moderate
Pearson et al., 2009	Cross-sectional	United Kingdom	N = 328 (142 female) Range = 12–16 years Divided into younger participants M = 13.3 years, and older participants M = 15.6 years	Parenting style measure made by Kremers et al. (2003)	Converged	Youth/adolescent food frequency questionnaire	No significant interactions between parental involvement or strictness and any dietary behaviors were found after controlling for gender and age.	Strong
Rozenblat et al., 2017	Cross-sectional	Australia	Study 1. N = 650 (338 female) Range = 15–16 years Study 2. N = 304 (161 female)	Australian temperament project parenting practices scale Iowa family interaction rating scale	1 parent (mainly mother, no statistic available)	Eating Disorder Inventory (EDI-2)	Study 1. Bulimic symptoms were significantly associated with self-reported parental warmth and use of harsh punishment, though drive for thinness was not. Study 2. However, observations of parental hostility did not directly predict either bulimia or drive for thinness.	Weak
Zubatsky et al., 2015	Longitudinal attrition N/A	Switzerland	N = 2,516 (1,386 female) Divided into middle school, M = 12.8 years; S.D. = 0.8, at time 1, and M = 17.2 years; S.D = 0.6, at time 2 And high school, M = 15.8 years; S.D. = 0.8 at time 1; M = 20.4; S.D. = 0.8, at time 2	Created for study (assessing authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and neglectful parenting)	Mother and father	Created for study (binge eating, WCBs, extreme WCBs)	The mother-youth relationship was significant, as maternal parenting style longitudinally predicted DEB (WCB) for both males and females. Specifically, youths with authoritarian mothers were more likely to have unhealthy WCBs compared to alternative parenting styles. For females, maternal authoritarian parenting style predicted increased risk for binge-eating behaviors; for males, less extreme WCB. In contrast, there were no significant associations between paternal parenting style and included youth DE symptoms.	Moderate

DEB, disordered eating behaviors; DE, disordered eating; and WCB, weight control behaviors.