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. 2021 Oct 12;1:732243. doi: 10.3389/fnetp.2021.732243

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Copyright © 2021 Healy, Morris and Liu.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

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Entrainment of peripheral clocks by feeding/fasting. (A) After feeding, insulin activates PI3K/AKT, which inhibits BMAL1 and activates mTOR. (B) During fasting, cortisol binds the glucocorticoid (GC) receptor, which binds glucocorticoid response elements (GREs) in promoters to drive PER1/2 transcription. (C) Also during fasting, PARP-1 and SIRT1 are activated in response to an increased ratio of NAD⁺/NADH. Subsequent post-translational modifications alter expression of core clock genes. (D) Higher ratio of AMP/ATP activates the AMPK, a mTOR inhibitor.