Table 1.
Electrochemical immunosensors for detection of avian influenza viruses (H5N1, H7N9, and H9N2), their hemagglutinin (HA) proteins, or peptides derived from the hemagglutinin proteins.
| Probe | Measuring technique | Target | Detection range | Labeling | Limit of detection | Electrode | Substrate | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| H5N1 HA or virus | ||||||||
| Antibody | EIS | H5N1 virus | 3–7 (log EID50/ml) | RBC | 3 (log EID50/ml) | Gold (IDA) | Glass | 23 |
| Antibody | Impedance measurement | H5N1 virus | 1–5 (log EID50/ml) | RBC | 3 (log EID50/ml) | Gold (IDA) | NA | 24 |
| Antibody fragment | EIS | Peptide from HA (H5N1) | 4–20 pg/ml | Label free | 2.2 pg/ml | Gold | Polymer | 25 |
| Antibody | EIS | H5N1 virus | 0.25–16 (HAU/50 µl) | Label free | 0.5 (HAU/50 µl) | Gold (IDA) | Glass | 26 |
| Aptamer | DPV | HA (H5N1) | 0.1–10 pM | ALP-Ab | 0.1 pM | AuNP-SPCE | NA | 27 |
| Aptamer | Impedance measurement | H5N1 virus | 0.125–16 (HAU/50 µl) | Gold nanoparticle | 0.25 (HAU/50 µl) | Gold (IDA) | NA | 28 |
| Antibody | DPV | HA (H5N1) | 25–500 pM | Label free | 9.4 pM | SPCE | Ceramic | 15 |
| Antibody fragment | DPV, EIS | Peptide from HA (H5N1) |
4–20 pg/ml 1–8 pg/ml |
Label free |
0.6 pg/ml 0.9 pg/ml |
Gold |
Polymer Ceramic |
29 |
| Antibody | CV | H5N1 virus | 0.0025–0.16 HAU | MNP | 0.0022(HAU/6 µl) | Gold | NA | 30 |
| 3 way-junction DNA | CV | HA (H5N1) | 1 pM–100 nM | Label free | 1 pM | Gold | SiO2 | 16 |
| H7N9 HA or virus | ||||||||
| Antibody | LSV | H7N9 virus | 10 pg/ml–20 ng/ml | bi-MBs | 6.8 pg/ml | Glassy carbon | NA | 31 |
| Antibody | LSV | HA (H7N9) | 1.6 pg/ml–1.6 ng/ml | PAb-AgNPs-G | 1.6 pg/ml | Gold | NA | 32 |
| Antibody | Amperometry | H1N1, H5N1, & H7N9 viruses | 1 pg/ml–10 ng/ml | HRP-Abs | 1 pg/ml | Gold | Glass | 33 |
| Antibody | LSV | H7N9 virus | 0.01–1.5 pg/ml | Fluorescence MNP | 7.8 fg/ml | ITO | Glass | 34 |
| H9N2 HA or virus | ||||||||
| Antibody | DPV | H9N2 virus | 1 ng/ml–2 µg/ml | GOD-A | 1 (ng/ml) | Gold | Magnet | 35 |
| Antibody | Chronoamperometry | H9N2 virus | 8–128 HAU | AuNP-fetuin | 8 (HAU) | SPCE | Ceramic | 36 |
| Antibody | DPV | HA (H5N1, H7N9, and H9N2) |
100 pg/ml–100 ng/ml (1.7 pM–1.7 nM) |
Label free |
55.7 (pg/ml) for H5N1 HA (0.95 pM) 99.6 (pg/ml) for H7N9 HA (1.69 pM) 54.0 (pg/ml) for H9N2 HA (0.72 pM) |
SPCE | Paper | Present study |
IDA interdigitated electrode array, SPCE screen-printed carbon electrode, EID egg infectious dose, HAU hemagglutinin units, RBC red blood cell, bi-MBs bifunctional magnetic beads, HRP-Abs horseradish peroxidase antibodies, GOD-A glucose oxidase conjugated avidin D, ALP alkaline phosphatase, MNP magnetic nanoparticle, PAb-AgNPs-G polyclonal antibody/silver nanoparticle/graphene conjugate, ITO indium titanium oxide, EIS electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, DPV differential pulse voltammetry, CV cyclic voltammetry, LSV linear sweep voltammetry, NA not available.