Table 1.

Experimental and clinical studies of hormonal therapy to treat cervical cancer.

Name of Hormone	Formulation Name and Dose	Observation Time	Study Model	Results	References
ER antagonist	0.15 mL Faslodex and 1.5 mg of raloxifene	Faslodex twice a week for a month and raloxifene for a month, 5 days a week	K14E7 and K14E6 transgenic mice	Raloxifene, ER antagonist and selective ER modulator, efficiently clears cancer and its precursor lesions in both the cervix and the vagina	[79]
Non-steroid synthetic estrogen with synthetic progestagen	Dienestrol—1 tablet (5 mg) and Chlormadinon—1 tablet (2 mg)	5 years	120 patients after surgery and/or radiotherapy	Only 20% and 32% incidence of cancer recurrences and survival without cancer symptoms was found in 80% and 65% of cases, respectively in the hormonally treated group and in the control group	[90]
Estrogen and progesterone	HT formulation (estrogen alone, progesterone alone, combination of estrogen/progesterone)	3 groups (≤1, 2–4, ≥5 years)	261 ICC and 804 CIN3/CIS cases of post- and perimenopausal women	Significantly decreased the risk of ICC in peri- and postmenopausal women, but menopausal estrogens alone were associated with an increased risk of CIN3/CIS and combined HT was inversely associated with ICC	[81]
ERT	—	1–10 years	645 women	Exogenous estrogens decreased the risk of cervical cancer	[78]
Estrogens progestin	Oral conjugated equine estrogens, 0.625 mg/day, plus medroxyprogesterone acetate, 2.5 mg/day	2 years	2561 women	Did not significantly affect the incidence of cytologic abnormalities	[76]
Anti-estrogen	Triphenylethylene antiestrogen tamoxifen	10 days (20 or 40 mg/day)	19 patients	Certain cervical carcinomas had changes in their proliferation and differentiation levels following tamoxifen administration	[82]
Anti-estrogen	Tamoxifen	10 mg per orally twice a day	34 patients	The objective response rate was 11.1%, so tamoxifen appears to have minimal activity in non-squamous cell carcinoma of the cervix	[83]
Progestagen	Combined oral contraceptives	<5 years and >5 years	16,573 women	The risk of invasive cervical cancer increased with increasing duration of use, not for short time use	[84]
Estrone, estradiol and progesterone	SHBG (20 nmol·L−1) estradiol (5 pg·mL−1) estrone (5 pg·mL−1) estrone sulphate (100 pg·mL−1) DHEAS 10 μg·dl−1 and progesterone 100·pg·mL−1	5–10 years of study	11,742 women	Elevated plasma levels of endogenous estrogens or progesterone decrease the risk of cervical neoplasia	[85]
HRT	—	1 January, 2005 to 31 December 31 2015	222 women	48% patients received counseling for HRT and then improved efforts to reduce disparities in the distribution of survivorship care	[86]
ER modulator, Tamoxifen	5% dextran-charcoal treated fetal bovine serum (D5) and 0, 1, 2.5, 5, 7.5, or 10 μM tamoxifen	6 days	In vitro growth of three cell lines derived from carcinoma of the uterine cervix (HeLa, CaSki, ME-180)	Inhibited cell growth of the cervical carcinoma cell lines; 2.5 μM tamoxifen induced more than 60% growth inhibition where 5 μM tamoxifen was cytotoxic	[87]
Estrogens and progestogens	Contraceptives (G03A), estrogens (G03C), progestogens (G03D), and progestogens and estrogens in combination (G03F).	0.5 to 1 year after diagnosis	171 (67%) of 257 women had at least one dispensing of HT (Hormonal Therapy)	Fewer than half of cervical cancer survivors with therapy-induced early menopause used HT	[88]
Estradiol	30 to 35 μg ethinylestradiol	From 1995 to 2014	women aged 15 to 49	The risk pattern among any hormonal and combined contraceptive users generally increased with longer duration of use and declined after stopping	[89]