Table 2.

Micro- and nano-structures discussed in the text and related strategies to decrease the rate of β-carotene degradation. O, oil; W, water; LBL, layer by layer; SL, solid lipid; Pck, Pickering; Ogel, oleogel.

Structure	Strategies to Increase β-Carotene Stability
molecular complexes	Use of carrier biopolymers with antioxidant activity to inhibit radical-mediated oxidation
liposomes	Co-encapsulation of antioxidant compounds to inhibit radical-mediated oxidation
O/W emulsion	Functionalization of the emulsifier to increase its oxygen barrier properties
LBL O/W emulsion	Addition of multiple biopolymer layers to decrease oxygen diffusion rate at the O/W interface
O/gel emulsions	Use of a gelled continuous phase to decrease oxygen diffusion rate at the air/continuous phase interface and at the continuous phase/oil droplet interface
SL nanoparticles	Use of a solid lipid phase to decrease oxygen diffusion rate through the core
O/W Pck emulsions	Use of colloidal surfactants to decrease oxygen diffusion rate at the O/W interface
Ogel/W Pck emulsions	Use of colloidal surfactants and an Ogel as a core to decrease oxygen diffusion rate at the Ogel/W interface and through the core
O/gel Pck emulsions	Use of colloidal surfactants and a gelled continuous phase to decrease oxygen diffusion rate at the air/continuous phase interface and at the continuous phase/oil droplet interface