. 2022 Feb 2;11(3):437. doi: 10.3390/foods11030437

Table 1.

Dried systems for the delivery of β-carotene: matrix ingredient, structure, average particle size (PS, µm), water activity (aw), glass transition temperature (Tg, °C), degradation rate constants (k × 10³, d⁻¹) and half-life (t_1/2, d) for β-carotene during storage in the dark at a given temperature (°C).

Matrix Ingredients	Matrix Structure	PS	T	aw	Tg	k × 10³	t_1/2	Ref.
carrot	FD powder	n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d	40	0.10 0.22 0.31 0.53 0.75	40.64 13.45 −11.44 −20.38 −41.29	104 ^a 82 ^a 62 ^a 48 ^a 271 ^a	7 8 11 14 3	k [60] Tg [61]
β-carotene, polyvinyl pyrrolidone −40 and gelatin	FD molecular complexes	n.d. n.d n.d.	25	0.11 0.44 0.53	86 50 25	270 ^b 220 ^b 110 ^b	2 3 6	[62]
β-carotene, polyvinyl pyrrolidone −40 and gelatin	collapsed molecular complexes	n.d. n.d	25	0.64 0.75	7 −9	10 ^b 7 ^b	69 99	[62]
β-carotene, β-cyclodextrins/epiclon	FD molecular complexes	0.65	25	n.d.	n.d.	n.d.	5	[63]
β-carotene, β-cyclodextrins/hexamethylene diisocyanate	FD molecular complexes	0.59	25	n.d.	n.d.	n.d.	5	[63]
β-carotene, amylose, ascorbyl palmitate	RT molecular complexes	n.d.	20	n.d.	n.d.	32.8 ^a	26	[64]
β-carotene, sunflower oil, maltodextrins DE 4	FD O/W emulsion	~2 ~2	24	0.00 0.35	n.d. n.d.	~16 ^a ~14 ^a	~43 ~50	[65]
β-carotene, sunflower oil, maltodextrins DE 4	collapsed O/W emulsion	~2.5		0.75	n.d.	~12 ^a	~58
β-carotene, sunflower oil, maltodextrins DE 10	FD O/W emulsion	~3 ~3		0.00 0.35	n.d. n.d.	~18 ^a ~18 ^a	~39 ~39
β-carotene, sunflower oil, maltodextrins DE 10	collapsed O/W emulsion	~4		0.75	n.d.	~10 ^a	~69
β-carotene, sunflower oil, maltodextrins DE 25.5	FD O/W emulsion	~4 ~4		0.00 0.35	n.d. n.d.	~14 ^a ~10 ^a	~50 ~69
β-carotene, sunflower oil, maltodextrins DE 25.5	collapsed O/W emulsion	~7		0.75	−28	~7 ^a	~99
β-carotene, sunflower oil, Arabic gum	FD O/W emulsion	5.1 n.d.	25	0.10 0.45	n.d. n.d.	24 ^a 39.7 ^a	28 17	[66]
β-carotene, sunflower oil, Arabic gum	collapsed O/W emulsion	n.d.		0.80	n.d.	n.d.	>70
β-carotene, sunflower oil, Almond gum	FD O/W emulsion	3.7 n.d.		0.10 0.45	n.d. n.d.	17.8 ^a 25 ^a	40 28
β-carotene, sunflower oil, Almond gum	collapsed O/W emulsion	n.d.		0.80	n.d.	n.d.	>70
β-carotene, sunflower oil, Arabic gum	SD O/W emulsion	3.2	25	0.10 0.45	n.d. n.d.	9.6 ^a 30 ^a	72 23	[67]
β-carotene, sunflower oil, Arabic gum	collapsed O/W emulsion	n.d.		0.80	n.d.	n.d.	n.d.
β-carotene, sunflower oil, Almond gum	SD O/W emulsion	2.1		0.10 0.45	n.d. n.d.	25 ^a 45 ^a	28 15
β-carotene, sunflower oil, Almond gum	collapsed O/W emulsion	n.d.		0.80	n.d.	n.d.	n.d.
β-carotene, sunflower canola-cartamum oils, gellan gum, Arabic gum, maltodextrins DE 10, mono- and di-glycerides, diacetyl tartaric acid and polyglycerol polyricinoleate	SD W₁/O/W₂ emulsion	34	35	0.02–0.51	n.d.	23.5 ^a	21	[68]
	dissolved emulsion	n.d.		0.63	n.d.	160 ^a	4
	gel-like structure	n.d.		0.74–0.82	n.d.	20 ^a	35
β-carotene, sunflower oil, trehalose, whey protein	FD O/W emulsion	n.d.	37	0.33	n.d.	~23 ^a	~30	[69]
β-carotene, sunflower oil, trehalose, whey protein, Arabic gum	FD LBL O/W emulsion	n.d.	37	0.33	n.d.	~14 ^a	~49	[69]
β-carotene, sunflower oil, trehalose, whey protein	FD O/W emulsion	n.d.	35	0.14	50	n.d.	>78	[70]
β-carotene, sunflower oil, trehalose, whey protein, Arabic gum	FD LBL O/W emulsion	n.d.		0.14	50	n.d.	>78
β-carotene, sunflower oil, trehalose, maltodextrin DE 23–27, whey protein	SD O/W emulsion	n.d.		0.16	64	n.d.	>99
β-carotene, sunflower oil, trehalose, maltodextrin DE 23–27, whey protein, Arabic gum	SD LBL O/W emulsion	n.d.		0.17	64	n.d.	>99
β-carotene, palm oil, tocopherols and tocotrienols, maltodextrins DE 10, sodium caseinate and soy lecithin	SEDS O/W emulsion	5.8	25	0.47	n.d.	4.65 ^a	149	[71]
	SD O/W emulsion	16.6	25	0.40	n.d.	3.48 ^a	199	[71]
β-carotene, medium chain triglycerides, pullulan, whey protein	ED O/W emulsion	0.54 n.d. n.d.	25	0.2 0.4 0.6	n.d n.d. n.d.	n.d. n.d. n.d.	86 81 46	[72]
β-carotene, medium chain triglycerides, OSA modified starch HI-CAP	SD O/W emulsion	0.15 n.d. n.d. n.d.		0.11 0.33 0.52 0.75	n.d. 31 9 −26	13(1.2) ^c 14(1.2) ^c 34(1.5) ^c 25(1.4) ^c	50 46 17 24	[73]
	collapsed emulsion	n.d.		0.97	n.d.	18(1.0) ^c	39
β-carotene, medium chain triglycerides, OSA modified starch CAPSUL	SD O/W emulsion	0.10 n.d. n.d. n.d.		0.11 0.33 0.52 0.75	n.d. 80 73 55	34(1.2) ^c 39(1.2) ^c 41(1.2) ^c 44(1.2) ^c	19 17 16 15
	collapsed O/W emulsion	n.d.		0.97	n.d.	21(0.8) ^c	36
β-carotene, medium chain triglycerides, OSA modified starch CAPSUL TA	SD O/W emulsion	0.11 n.d. n.d. n.d.		0.11 0.33 0.52 0.75	n.d. 83 75 56	33(1.2) ^c 35(1.3) ^c 38(1.3) ^c 41(1.3) ^c	20 18 16 15
	collapsed O/W emulsion	n.d.		0.97	n.d.	19(1.0) ^c	36
β-carotene, flaxseed oil, eugenol, OSA starch (MW 9.4 × 10⁵)	SD O/W emulsion	0.13	40	0.28	n.d.	n.d.	>30	[74]
β-carotene, flaxseed oil, eugenol, OSA starch (MW 5.3 × 10⁶)	SD O/W emulsion	0.24	40	0.19	n.d.	n.d.	21	[74]
β-carotene, α-tocopherol, corn oil, OSA starch, ascorbic acid, sucrose	SD O/W emulsion	0.25	60	0.26	83	n.d.	>30	[75]

Rate constant and half-life refer all-trans-β-carotene degradation. ^a First-order kinetic model. ^b Fractional conversion model. ^c Weibull model, with the shape value n indicated in brackets. DE, dextrose equivalents; OSA, N-octenyl succinate anhydride; O, oil; W, water; LBL, layer-by-layer; FD, freeze-dried; RT, room-temperature dried; SD, spray-dried; SEDS, supercritical CO₂. enhanced dispersion dried; ED, electro-sprayed; n.d., not determined.