Table 4.

Effects of SCFAs on intestinal epithelial cell homeostasis and function.

Energy substrate for ATP production. Receptor activation, mainly G protein-coupled receptors. Maintenance of barrier function and integrity. In particular, modulation of apical tight junctions, activation of NLRP3 inflammasome, increased mucin expression, anti-inflammatory effects, interaction with epithelial Toll-like receptors, and activation of the nuclear factor-κB signaling pathway. Modulation of immunity and control of inflammation. Treg differentiation, modulation of inflammation mediators. Modulation of intracellular permeability. Epigenetic effects, with inhibition of histone deacetylases, hyperacetylation of histones, and modulation of gene expression.