Table 1. Details of included studies.
Author | Year | N | Effect size (r) | p-value | Sample type | Percentage of men within sample | Religiosity type | Intelligence measure | Publication status |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Howells | 1928 | 461 | -.25 | < .01 | College | 43 | Beliefs | Thorndike Intelligence Test, Iowa Comprehension Test, and GPA | Published |
Sinclair | 1928 | 67 | -.44 | < .01 | College | 48 | Beliefs | UEE | Published |
Carlson | 1934 | 100 | -.19 | .058 | College | n/a | Beliefs | UEE | Published |
Franzblau | 1934 | 354 | -.15 | .005 | Precollege | 44 | Beliefs | Terman Test of Mental Abilities | Published |
(1)Symington | 1935 | 200 | -.24 | .001 | College | n/a | Beliefs | Otis Test of Mental Ability | Published |
(2)Symington | 1935 | 160 | -.47 | < .01 | College | n/a | Beliefs | Otis Test of Mental Ability | Published |
V.Jones | 1938 | 268 | -.24 | < .01 | College | n/a | Beliefs | UEE | Published |
Corey | 1940 | 234 | -.03 | .648 | College | n/a | Beliefs | UEE | Published |
Gilliland | 1940 | 326 | .00 | 1.000 | College | n/a | Beliefs | Not specified | Published |
Gragg | 1942 | 100 | -.02 | .843 | College | 50 | Beliefs | UEE | Published |
Brown and Lowe | 1951 | 108 | -.43 | < .01 | College | n/a | Beliefs | UEE | Published |
Dreger | 1952 | 60 | -.13 | .322 | Non-college | 50 | Beliefs | Wonderlic Personnel Test | Published |
Kosa and Schommer | 1961 | 361 | .09 | .088 | College | 100 | Behavior | Assorted tests and GPA | Published |
Hadden | 1963 | 261 | -.06 | .334 | College | n/a | Mixed | GPA | Published |
Feather | 1964 | 165 | -.16 | .040 | College | 100 | Beliefs | Syllogisms | Published |
Verhage | 1964 | 1538 | -.12 | < .01 | Non-college | n/a | Behavior | Groninger Intelligence Test | Published |
(1)Young, Dustin and Holtzman | 1966 | 481 | .03 | .512 | College | 69 | Beliefs | GPA | Published |
(2)Young, Dustin and Holtzman | 1966 | 574 | -.11 | .008 | College | 57 | Beliefs | GPA | Published |
Feather | 1967 | 40 | -.09 | .581 | College | 50 | Behavior | Syllogisms | Published |
Bender | 1968 | 96 | -.10 | .332 | Non-college | 100 | Behavior | UEE and GPA | Published |
Southern and Plant | 1968 | 72 | -.75 | < .01 | Non-college | 58 | Beliefs | Mensa membership | Published |
(1)Hoge | 1969 | 179 | -.12 | .110 | College | n/a | Mixed | UEE | Unpublished |
(2)Hoge | 1969 | 135 | -.08 | .356 | College | n/a | Mixed | UEE | Unpublished |
(3)Hoge | 1969 | 327 | -.07 | .207 | College | n/a | Mixed | UEE | Unpublished |
Kahoe | 1974 | 188 | .18 | .001 | College | 38 | Beliefs | GPA / American College | Published |
(1)Salter and Routledge | 1974 | 339 | -.15 | .006 | College | n/a | Beliefs | UEE | Published |
(2)Salter and Routledge | 1974 | 241 | -.18 | .005 | College | n/a | Beliefs | UEE | Published |
Foy | 1975 | 36 | -.50 | .002 | Non-college | 50 | Beliefs | WAIS | Unpublished |
Poythress | 1975 | 195 | -.19 | .008 | College | n/a | Beliefs | UEE | Published |
Dodrill | 1976 | 44 | .05 | .747 | Non-college | 54 | Beliefs | WAIS | Published |
Francis | 1979 | 2272 | .04 | .057 | Precollege | n/a | Mixed | IQ from school records | Published |
(1)Turner | 1980 | 200 | -.04 | .574 | Precollege | 100 | Beliefs | Thurstone Primary Mental Abilities Scale | Published |
(2)Turner | 1980 | 200 | -.02 | .779 | Precollege | 100 | Beliefs | Thurstone Primary Mental Abilities Scale | Published |
Francis, Pearson and Stubbs | 1985 | 290 | -.13 | .055 | Precollege | 72 | Beliefs | IQ (not specified) | Published |
Francis;Francis | 1997 | 711 | -.04 | .287 | Precollege | 40 | Mixed | Raven Progressive Matrices | Published |
(1)Blanchard-Fields, Hertzog, Stein and Pak | 2001 | 96 | .04 | 1.000 | College | 60 | Mixed | Shipley Vocabulary Test | Published |
(2)Blanchard-Fields, Hertzog, Stein and Pak | 2001 | 219 | -.32 | < .01 | Non-college | 42 | Mixed | Shipley Vocabulary Test | Published |
Crossman | 2001 | 75 | -.36 | .002 | Non-college | 0 | Beliefs | Immediate free recall | Unpublished |
Saroglou and Scariot | 2002 | 94 | .13 | .212 | Precollege | 41 | Mixed | GPA | Published |
Horowitz and Garber | 2003 | 172 | .05 | .515 | Precollege | 46 | Mixed | WISC Vocabulary and Block design | Published |
Saroglou and Fiasse | 2003 | 120 | .07 | .447 | College | 56 | Beliefs | GPA | Published |
Clark | 2004 | 77 | -.12 | .299 | College | 22 | Beliefs | WAIS III | Published |
Carothers, Borkowski, Burke, Lefever and Whitman | 2005 | 101 | -.25 | .012 | Non-college | 0 | Behavior | WAIS-R Vocabulary and Block design | Published |
Ciesielski-Kaiser | 2005 | 216 | -.14 | .040 | College | 36 | Beliefs | Shipley Institute for Living Scale | Unpublished |
Wahling | 2005 | 35 | -.32 | .061 | Non-college | 14 | Beliefs | Six cognitive ability tests | Unpublished |
Hergovich and Arendasy | 2005 | 180 | -.23 | .002 | College | 41 | Beliefs | Wiener Matrizen-Test | Published |
McCullough, Enders, Brion and Jain | 2005 | 951 | -.45 | < .01 | Non-college | n/a | Beliefs | Stanford-Binet | Published |
Deptula, Henry, Shoeny and Slavick | 2006 | 11963 | -.10 | < .01 | Precollege | n/a | Beliefs | Modified Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test | Published |
Räsänen, Tirri and Nokelainen | 2006 | 142 | -.17 | .043 | Precollege | n/a | Beliefs | Assorted tests | Published |
Cottone, Drucker and Javier | 2007 | 123 | -.14 | .122 | College | 35 | Beliefs | WAIS III comprehension and similarities and GPA | Published |
(1)Stanovich and West | 2007 | 439 | -.24 | < .01 | College | 24 | Beliefs | UEE | Published |
(2)Stanovich and West | 2007 | 1045 | -.18 | < .01 | College | 31 | Beliefs | UEE | Published |
Szobot et al. | 2007 | 236 | .15 | .021 | Precollege | 100 | Behavior | WAIS III block design and Vocabulary | Published |
Bloodgood, Turnley and Mudrack | 2008 | 230 | -.15 | .023 | College | 63 | Behavior | UEE | Published |
Bertsch and Pesta | 2009 | 278 | -.15 | .012 | College | 42 | Beliefs | Wonderlic Personnel Test | Published |
Inzlicht, McGregor, Hirsh and Nash | 2009 | 22 | -.13 | .564 | College | 41 | Beliefs | Wonderlic Personnel Test | Published |
Nyborg | 2009 | 3742 | -.05 | .002 | Precollege | n/a | Behavior | Assorted tests | Published |
(1) Boazman | 2010 | 122 | .13 | .154 | College | 52 | Mixed | GPA | Unpublished |
(2) Boazman | 2010 | 91 | -.26 | .013 | College | 34 | Mixed | GPA | Unpublished |
(1)Kanazawa | 2010 | 14277 | -.12 | < .01 | Non-college | 47 | Beliefs | Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test | Published |
(2)Kanazawa | 2010 | 7160 | -.14 | < .01 | Non-college | 44 | Beliefs | Verbal synonyms | Published |
Nokelainen and Tirri | 2010 | 20 | -.20 | .398 | Precollege | 45 | Beliefs | WAIS III | Published |
Raman | 2010 | 129 | .15 | .090 | College | n/a | Mixed | ACER Word Knowledge test | Unpublished |
Sherkat | 2010 | 12994 | -.15 | < .01 | Non-college | 43 | Mixed | Vocabulary Test | Published |
Lewis, Ritchie and Bates | 2011 | 2155 | -.16 | < .01 | Non-college | n/a | Mixed | Assorted tests | Published |
Heaven, Ciarrochi and Leeson | 2011 | 375 | -.14 | .007 | Precollege | 45 | Beliefs | G of six numerical and three verbal tests | Published |
Shenav, Rand and Greene | 2011 | 306 | -.06 | .295 | College | 35 | Beliefs | Shipley Vocabulary Test, and WAIS III Matrix Reasoning Test | Published |
Sherkat | 2011 | 1780 | -.34 | < .01 | Non-college | n/a | Beliefs | Scientific Literacy Scale from General Social Survey | Published |
(1)Pennycook, Cheyne, Seli, Koehler and Fugelsang | 2012 | 223 | -.19 | .004 | Non-college | 41 | Mixed | Assorted tests | Published |
(2)Pennycook, Cheyne, Seli, Koehler and Fugelsang | 2012 | 267 | -.17 | .005 | Non-college | 22 | Mixed | Assorted tests | Published |
Ganzach and Gotlibovski | 2013 | 8984 | -.23 | < .01 | Mixeda | n/a | Beliefs | AFQT (Armed Forces Qualifying Test) | Published |
Pennycook and Cheyne, Koehler and Fugelsang | 2013 | 91 | -.34 | .001 | College | 27 | Beliefs | WordSum | Published |
Razmyar and Reeve | 2013 | 150 | -.16 | .050 | College | 47 | Beliefs | Employee Aptitude Survey—abbreviated | Published |
Ritchie, Gow and Deary | 2014 | 550 | -.15 | < .01 | Non-college | 43 | Beliefs | Raven`s Standard Progressive Matrizes, phonemic verbal fluency, logical memory from the Wechsler memory Scale- Revised | Published |
Pennycook, Cheyne, Barr, Koehler and Fugelsang | 2014a | 505 | -.27 | < .01 | Non-college | 52 | Beliefs | Numeracy, WordSum | Published |
Pennycook, Cheyne, Barr, Koehler and Fugelsang | 2014b | 198 | -.23 | .001 | College | 32 | Beliefs | WordSum | Published |
Sacher | 2015 | 44 | -.01 | .949 | College | 27 | Beliefs | Shipley-2 abbreviated test of intelligence | Unpublished |
Ross | 2015 | 558 | -.14 | .001 | Non-college | 48 | Mixed | Numeracy, WordSum, Syllogisms | Unpublished |
Kirkegaard and Bjerrekaer | 2016 | 37078 | -.26 | < .001 | Non-college | 66 | Beliefs | Latent factor of several items | Published |
Pennycook, Ross, Koehler and Fugelsang | 2016 | 1065 | -.16 | < .001 | College | 29 | Beliefs | Numeracy, WordSum | Published |
Zuckerman and McPhetres | 2016 | 1477 | -.25 | < .001 | Non-college | 27 | Beliefs | Verbal, numerical and spatial tests | Unpublished |
Saribay and Yilmaz | 2017 | 426 | -.10 | .039 | Non-college | 38 | Beliefs | WordSum, Base rate neutral problems | Published |
(1) Daws and Hampshire | 2017 | 30762 | -.10 | < .001 | Non-college | n/a | Behavior | Overall score for 12 tests | Published |
(2) Daws and Hampshire | 2017 | 15843 | -.14 | < .001 | Non-college | n/a | Behavior | Overall score for 13 tests | Published |
Hartman, Dieckmann, Sprenger, Stastny and DeMarree | 2017 | 598 | -.20 | < .001 | Non-college | 35 | Beliefs | Numeracy, Shipley 2 tests | Published |
Pollet and Schnell | 2017 | 475 | -.22 | < .001 | Non-college | 57 | Beliefs | Fluid intelligence | Published |
Stankov and Lee | 2018 | 8883 | -.19 | < .01 | College | 41 | Mixed | Number series test | Published |
(1) Strimaitis | 2018 | 110 | -.04 | .686 | College | 31 | Beliefs | Numeracy | Unpublished |
(2) Strimaitis | 2018 | 185 | -.14 | .057 | College | 20 | Beliefs | Numeracy | Unpublished |
(1) Drewelies, Deeg, Huisman and Gerstorf | 2018 | 795 | .00 | 1.000 | Non-college | n/a | Beliefs | 15-Words Test | Published |
(2) Drewelies, Deeg, Huisman and Gerstorf | 2018 | 819 | -.06 | .086 | Non-college | n/a | Beliefs | 15-Words Test | Published |
Erlandsson, Nilsson, Tinghög and Västfjäll | 2018 | 1015 | -.23 | .001 | Non-college | 50 | Behavior | Numeracy | Published |
Leonard | 2018 | 266 | -.16 | .008 | Mixed | 45 | Beliefs | Raven`s Advanced Progressive Matrices | Unpublished |
Foong, Hamid, Ibrahim and Haron | 2018 | 2322 | .07 | .002 | Non-college | 48 | Beliefs | Montreal Cognitive Assessment | Published |
Ståhl and van Prooijen | 2018 | 322 | -.17 | .002 | Non-college | 53 | Mixed | Numeracy, WordSum | Published |
Perales | 2018 | 11654 | -.08 | < .001 | Non-college | 46 | Beliefs | Verbal, matching symbols, and memory test | Unpublished |
Cavojová, Šrol and Jurkovič | 2019 | 317 | -.26 | .001 | Mixed | 41 | Beliefs | Wiener Matrizen-Test | Published |
Cavojová, Secară, Jurkovič and Šrol | 2019 | 121 | .19 | .194 | Mixed | 23 | Mixed | Wiener Matrizen-Test | Published |
(1) Lowicki, Zajenkowski and van der Linden | 2019 | 301 | -.17 | .004 | Non-college | 36 | Beliefs | Catell`s Culture Fair Intelligence Test 3 | Published |
(2) Lowicki, Zajenkowski and van der Linden | 2019 | 200 | -.07 | .326 | Non-college | 53 | Beliefs | Catell`s Culture Fair Intelligence Test 3, Number Series Test, Paper Folding Test | Published |
Nilsson, Erlandsson and Västfjäll | 2019 | 985 | -.16 | .001 | Non-college | 50 | Mixed | Numeracy | Published |
(1) Patel, Baker and Scherer | 2019 | 539 | -.08 | .064 | College | n/a | Beliefs | Rasch Numeracy Scale | Published |
(2) Patel, Baker and Scherer | 2019 | 631 | -.13 | .002 | College | 38 | Beliefs | Rasch Numeracy Scale | Published |
Betsch, Aßmann and Glöckner | 2020 | 599 | -.22 | < .01 | Non-college | 40 | Beliefs | Numeracy | Published |
Furnham and Grover | 2020 | 475 | -.11 | .020 | Non-college | 51 | Beliefs | n/a | Published |
Note. UEE = University Entrance Exams; GPA = Grade Point Average; n/a = no available; WAIS = Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale; WISC = Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children; ACER = Australian Council for Educational research.
aParticipants were 15 years old on average when intelligence was measured and 26 years old when religiosity was assessed.