Table 1.

Summary of prenatal choline supplementation studies.

Publication	Participants: (n, Age, Diagnosis)	Choline Supplementation (Type, Dose, and Form)	Study Design	Outcome Measures	Main Findings
Coles et al., 2015 [154]	n = 614 pregnant women (301 consumed alcohol, 313 non-drinking) n = 367 children aged 6 months	750 mg choline + multi-vitamin vs. multi-vitamin vs. control 1st prenatal visit - birth	Randomized controlled trial	Cognitive and psychomotor development, orientation/engagement, emotional regulation, motor quality, and total behavior quality.	Higher cognitive development scores in multi-vitamin group, no effect of choline
Kable et al., 2015 [153]	n =119 alcohol exposed infants, n = 136 controls	750 mg choline + multi-vitamin vs. multi-vitamin vs. control 1st prenatal visit—birth	Randomized controlled trial	Cardiac orienting response to visual and auditory stimuli	Improved cardiac orienting response after choline supplementation Prenatal choline metabolite levels predicted cardiac orienting outcomes
Jacobson et al., 2018 [155]	n = 69 heavy drinking pregnant women 62 infants (31 choline, 31 placebo)	2 g of choline bitartrate or placebo mid-pregnancy—birth	Randomized, double-blind controlled trial	Infant growth, recognition memory Eyeblink conditioning (EBC) at 6.5 months; somatic growth at 6.5 and 12 months; recognition memory and processing speed at 6.5 and 12 months	Better EBC task performance and recognition memory in choline group at 12 months Improved infant growth in choline group at 6.5 and 12 months
Warton et al., 2021 [156]	52 infants 52 heavy-drinking women (28 choline; 24 placebo)	2 g choline or placebo daily mid-pregnancy—birth	Randomized, double-blind (after 12-month assessment), choline intervention	Brain structure, recognition memory	Larger brain volumes in 6/12 regions in choline group, which correlated positively with recognition memory in some regions