Table 1.

RES-induced regulation of cellular signaling molecules and gene regulatory factors in various drug-resistant cancer cells.

Target	Regulatory Molecules		Cellular Effect
	↑ Upregulation	↓ Downregulation	↑ Upregulation	↓ Downregulation
Drug transporters and drug-metabolizing enzymes	AMPK	ABCG2, GST, LRP1, MDR1, MRP1, Nrf2, p-AKT, p-CREB, p-NF-κB, PI3K	Cellular accumulation	ABC transporters ATPase activity Detoxification
DNA damage, repair, and replication	APC, Topo-II, γ-H2AX	DDB2, FEN-1, POLH, POL-β, Rad51	DNA damage	DNA repair DNA replication
Cell cycle regulation	miR-122-5p, p21, p53, PTEN	CDC2, CDK2, CDK4, CDK6, Cyclin D1, ERα, IRS1	Cell cycle arrest	-
Pro-apoptotic and anti-apoptotic action	AIF, AMPK, Apaf-1, Bad, Bax, Caspae-3, Caspase-7, Caspase-8, Caspase-9, CHK2, CK1, Endo G, miR-122-5p, p53, p-p53(S20), PTEN, PUMA, TSC1, TSC2	Bcl-2, Bcl-xL, Clusterin, Integrin β1, p-AKT, p-Bad(s136), p-EGFR, p-ERK1/2, p-FAK, PI3K, p-IkBα, p-Jak, p-mTOR, p-NF-κB, p-p53(S15, S46), p-Src, p-Stat1, Survivin, uPAR	Apoptosis Cell death Senescence Sub-G1 arrest	Cell proliferation Tumor volume
Autophagy regulation	Atg3, Atg5, Atg7, Atg14, Atg12, Atg16L1, Beclin-1, LC3-Ⅱ, p62, p-AMPKα, p-JNK	p-AKT, p-mTOR, Rubicon	Autophagy	-
Migration, invasion, metastasis, EMT, and CSC	E-cadherin, SIRT1, γ-catenin	ALDH1, CD133, CD44, CXCR4, Fibronectin, MMP-2, MMP-9, N-Cadherin, p-ERK, p-NF-κB, p-p38, p-Smad2, p-Smad3, Slug, Snail, TGF-β, Vimentin, β-Catenin	Intracellular junction	Cell migration, invasion, and metastasis Colony formation CSC EMT