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. 2022 Jan 18;14(3):358. doi: 10.3390/polym14030358

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© 2022 by the authors.

Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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Scanning electron microscopy images of 48 h biofilms depicting increased area of the titanium disc covered by bacteria. In the negative control group (A,B) and the undoped nanoparticles (NPs) (C,D), the biofilm was spread throughout the disc surface, while in calcium-doped NPs (E,F) and zinc-doped NPs (G,H), some areas of titanium were still uncovered. Titanium disc covered with doxycycline-doped NPs (I,J) did not show biofilm formation, but rather a few scattered visible cells. Magnification: (A,C,E,G,I) 1000×; (B,D,F,H,J) 3000×.