Table 1.
Sociodemographic characteristics influencing 4+ANC visits in nine sub-Saharan African countries
| Variables | N (%) | Ghana | Kenya | Malawi | Namibia | Rwanda | Senegal | Tanzania | Uganda | Zambia |
| 3224 | 10 981 | 9541 | 2286 | 4416 | 6552 | 5536 | 7979 | 5487 | ||
| Age group | ||||||||||
| 15–19 | 5084 (9.08) | 140 (79.1) | 399 (47.11) | 470 (43.93) | 153 (66.81) | 59 (40.14) | 232 (40.00) | 252 (47.10) | 475 (58.93) | 430 (62.05) |
| 20–24 | 14 930 (26.66) | 519 (84.12) | 1547 (54.05) | 1461 (48.62) | 487 (78.30) | 427 (45.77) | 743 (47.08) | 718 (49.42) | 1466 (62.30) | 989 (65.63) |
| 25–29 | 14 168 (25.30) | 722 (87.73) | 1782 (55.02) | 1115 (52.01) | 463 (81.66) | 597 (47.76) | 791 (46.67) | 659 (50.89) | 1213 (62.78) | 779 (63.70) |
| 30–34 | 10 804 (19.29) | 636 (86.53) | 1080 (52.81) | 902 (52.78) | 334 (82.47) | 483 (43.59) | 595 (46.09) | 491 (48.76) | 924 (61.52) | 656 (65.74) |
| 35 and above | 11 016 (19.67) | 743 (85.21) | 982 (49.40) | 840 (52.08) | 367 (79.27) | 399 (40.80) | 609 (43.25) | 544 (43.66) | 753 (54.33) | 668 (62.90) |
| P value | 0.029 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.012 | 0.014 | 0.004 | <0.001 | 0.361 | |
| Place of residence | ||||||||||
| Urban | 15 024 (26.83) | 1207 (91.72) | 2228 (61.28) | 892 (57.92) | 853 (82.66) | 442 (44.87) | 1188 (60.00) | 816 (60.53) | 1009 (67.90) | 1028 (60.44) |
| Rural | 40 978 (73.17) | 1553 (81.39) | 3562 (48.50) | 3896 (48.69) | 951 (75.84) | 1523 (44.39) | 1782 (38.98) | 1848 (44.13) | 3822 (58.86) | 2494 (65.87) |
| P value | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.788 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | |
| Women’s education | ||||||||||
| No schooling | 12 589 (22.48) | 846 (79.21) | 916 (40.75) | 494 (45.78) | 106 (58.56) | 228 (37.62) | 1982 (41.28) | 421 (38.62) | 535 (55.15) | 325 (59.52) |
| Primary | 28 673 (51.20) | 544 (82.42) | 2884 (50.67) | 3124 (49.15) | 367 (71.40) | 1397 (44.53) | 677 (54.51) | 1557 (46.91) | 2872 (58.18) | 1807 (64.15) |
| Secondary | 12 703 (22.68) | 1242 (90.86) | 1380 (60.50) | 1038 (53.73) | 1229 (82.82) | 257 (45.73) | 291 (60.00) | 643 (59.76) | 1072 (66.46) | 1206 (63.37) |
| Higher | 2037 (3.64) | 128 (99.22) | 610 (80.26) | 132 (75.86) | 102 (95.33) | 83 (74.77) | 20 (83.33) | 43 (84.31) | 352 (76.52) | 184 (83.26) |
| P value | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | |
| Husband’s education | ||||||||||
| No schooling | 9368 (22.53) | 699 (79.16) | 344 (40.23) | 348 (48.07) | 123 (65.78) | 248 (40.52) | 1900 (40.85) | 234 (36.34) | 324 (58.70) | 161 (61.92) |
| Primary | 18 618 (44.78) | 292 (83.67) | 1172 (51.38) | 2068 (48.72) | 174 (73.73) | 1267 (45.66) | 362 (55.69) | 1341 (45.66) | 2057 (57.54) | 1008 (64.24) |
| Secondary | 10 968 (26.38) | 1245 (88.61) | 727 (60.43) | 1314 (52.86) | 522 (82.08) | 172 (44.33) | 273 (62.19) | 521 (59.68) | 1114 (65.38) | 1174 (64.01) |
| Higher | 2624 (6.31) | 267 (96.39) | 347 (73.83) | 252 (67.56) | 83 (96.51) | 95 (62.91) | 84 (68.29) | 75 (69.44) | 508 (73.62) | 272 (78.61) |
| P value | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | |
| Women’s occupation | ||||||||||
| Not working O/H | 15 820 (31.48) | 519 (81.99) | 1012 (50.40) | 1457 (48.47) | 969 (74.65) | 130 (40.12) | 1654 (45.23) | 543 (52.92) | 760 (56.55) | 1560 (61.81) |
| Professional/skilled work | 9222 (18.35) | 1375 (91.18) | 305 (70.28) | 579 (55.94) | 558 (84.67) | 336 (49.19) | 656 (52.27) | 261 (65.91) | 1468 (64.84) | 668 (67.61) |
| Agriculture | 18 823 (37.45) | 786 (78.52) | 632 (49.11) | 2031 (49.61) | 40 (86.96) | 1428 (44.47) | 377 (33.87) | 1247 (41.58) | 2099 (57.90) | 965 (66.69) |
| Unskilled | 6392 (12.72) | 73 (97.33) | 859 (56.03) | 721 (51.28) | 233 (83.51) | 71 (36.04) | 279 (53.55) | 613 (54.98) | 498 (67.30) | 328 (62.36) |
| P value | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.003 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.001 | |
| Husband’s occupation | ||||||||||
| Not working O/H | 1744 (4.17) | – | 44 (51.76) | 380 (49.74) | 8 (88.89) | 12 (50.00) | 82 (49.70) | 16 (38.10) | 134 (59.03) | 267 (62.38) |
| Professional/skilled work | 14 721 (35.22) | 1024 (92.42) | 777 (62.26) | 1241 (53.84) | 459 (83.91) | 516 (45.03) | 1412 (51.22) | 600 (57.58) | 2091 (65.53) | 905 (65.72) |
| Agriculture | 16 758 (40.09) | 1065 (78.54) | 556 (44.91) | 1446 (49.25) | 117 (68.02) | 1082 (46.16) | 726 (34.00) | 1096 (41.66) | 1327 (55.36) | 1033 (66.09) |
| Unskilled | 8579 (20.52) | 433 (91.54) | 1199 (54.01) | 920 (49.78) | 180 (81.45) | 180 (42.35) | 445 (48.74) | 467 (54.75) | 521 (62.40) | 488 (61.69) |
| P value | <0.001 | 0.006 | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.493 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.062 | |
| Wealth quintile | ||||||||||
| Poorest | 15 283 (27.29) | 817 (78.78) | 1532 (41.79) | 1002 (46.32) | 369 (73.51) | 444 (41.73) | 634 (31.51) | 457 (37.71) | 1152 (54.78) | 1003 (65.13) |
| Poorer | 12 308 (21.98) | 577 (81.96) | 1130 (49.71) | 1022 (48.83) | 351 (74.05) | 409 (45.14) | 706 (40.88) | 450 (40.50) | 1020 (58.42) | 842 (66.09) |
| Middle | 10 560 (18.86) | 495 (86.09) | 1011 (55.10) | 888 (48.05) | 388 (79.51) | 377 (46.60) | 660 (49.14) | 481 (44.87) | 893 (60.13) | 692 (62.62) |
| Richer | 9452 (16.88) | 474 (94.23) | 1007 (60.55) | 887 (50.63) | 401 (82.51) | 355 (45.87) | 561 (61.58) | 666 (55.64) | 863 (64.26) | 473 (57.47) |
| Richest | 8399 (15.00) | 397 (98.02) | 1110 (71.15) | 989 (58.69) | 295 (87.80) | 380 (44.03) | 409 (73.17) | 610 (64.62) | 903 (69.35) | 512 (68.72) |
| P value | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.234 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | |
| Birth order | ||||||||||
| First | 13 434 (23.99) | 636 (87.60) | 1471 (59.80) | 1267 (51.23) | 594 (79.41) | 613 (50.16) | 718 (52.33) | 766 (56.70) | 1077 (63.73) | 918 (65.95) |
| Second | 11 333 (20.24) | 584 (89.30) | 1345 (57.45) | 941 (48.26) | 469 (81.42) | 502 (46.83) | 585 (50.39) | 538 (51.88) | 95363.87) | 684 (65.14) |
| Third | 8927 (15.94) | 470 (85.77) | 1019 (54.40) | 798 (50.41) | 309 (84.43) | 322 (45.61) | 448 (45.16) | 395 (48.59) | 762 (62.56) | 523 (63.16) |
| Fourth | 6901 (12.32) | 382 (88.22) | 710 (50.25) | 621 (50.74) | 180 (79.92) | 193 (38.14) | 367 (44.48) | 299 (46.00) | 583 (61.50) | 446 (66.77) |
| Fifth and above | 15 407 (27.51) | 688 (79.72) | 1245 (43.02) | 1161 (50.24) | 252 (69.61) | 335 (36.81) | 852 (38.69) | 666 (39.53) | 1456 (55.34) | 951 (61.39) |
| P value | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.383 | <0.001 | 0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.043 | |
| Frequency of listening to radio/watching TV/reading newspaper or magazine | ||||||||||
| Not at all | 14 976 (27.54) | 288 (70.07) | 1044 (39.77) | 2127 (47.85) | 178 (62.24) | 298 (42.63) | 308 (34.00) | 394 (37.60) | 1051 (53.54) | 1640 (63.25) |
| Less than once a week | 10 184 (18.73) | 646 (81.46) | 671 (51.14) | 829 (49.11) | 355 (76.84) | 481 (42.87) | 442 (37.91) | 836 (44.83) | 724 (59.69) | 352 (62.52) |
| At least once a week | 29 213 (53.73) | 1826 (90.40) | 4074 (57.84) | 1832 (53.76) | 1271 (82.75) | 1184 (45.75) | 2220 (49.55) | 1434 (54.67) | 3056 (63.63) | 473 (66.25) |
| P value | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.147 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.264 | |
4+ANC, four or more antenatal care; O/H, outside home.